Dubstep
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Dubstep
Stylistic origins Dub, grime, 2-step
Cultural origins Early 2000s,
Croydon, United Kingdom
Typical instruments Sequencer, turntables, sampler, drum machine, synthesizer, keyboard, personal computer
Mainstream popularity Mainly an underground scene, but with an increase in mainstream popularity in the late 2000s and early 2010s
Fusion genres
Dubstyle, drumstep
Other topics
List of musicians


Dubstep is a genre of electronic dance music that originated in South East London. Its overall sound has been described as "tightly coiled productions with overwhelming bass lines and reverberant drum patterns, clipped samples, and occasional vocals".[1]

The earliest dubstep releases date back to 1998 and were darker, more experimental, instrumental dub remixes of 2-step garage tracks attempting to incorporate the funky elements of breakbeat, or the dark elements of drum and bass into 2-step, which featured B-sides of single releases. In 2001, this and other strains of dark garage music began to be showcased and promoted at London's night club Forward (sometimes also referred to as FWD>>), which went on to be considerably influential to the development of dubstep. Throughout the first years of its development, the musical current was given many aliases by underground music aficionados, being firstly referred to as "dark" or "darker" garage[citation needed]. The term "dubstep" in reference to a genre of music began to be used by around 2002, by which time stylistic trends used in creating these remixes started to become more noticeable and distinct from 2-step and grime.

A very early supporter of the sound was BBC Radio 1 DJ John Peel, who started playing it from 2003 onwards. In 2004, the last year of his show, his listeners voted Distance, Digital Mystikz and Plastician (formerly Plasticman) in their top 50 for the year.[2] Dubstep started to spread beyond small local scenes in late 2005 and early 2006; many websites devoted to the genre appeared on the internet and thus aided the growth of the scene, such as dubstepforum, the download site Barefiles and blogs such as gutterbreakz.[3] Simultaneously, the genre was receiving extensive coverage in music magazines such as The Wire and online publications such as Pitchfork Media, with a regular feature entitled The Month In: Grime/Dubstep. Interest in dubstep grew significantly after BBC Radio 1 DJ Mary Anne Hobbs started championing the genre, beginning with a show devoted to it (entitled "Dubstep Warz") in January 2006.[4][5][6]Contents [hide]
1 Characteristics
1.1 Rhythm
1.2 Wobble bass
1.3 Structure, bass drops, rewinds and MCs
2 History
2.1 Early foundations
2.2 1999–2002: origins
2.3 2002–2005: evolution
2.4 2005–2008: growth
2.5 2009 to present: mainstream influence
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

[edit]
Characteristics 4-bar example of a half-step drum pattern, corresponding to the image below.

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Musical score of the above recording Blackleg - Smoke Test (2009)

Excerpt from "Smoke Test" by Blackleg, demonstrating a bassline driven track backed up by a sparse, half-time drum beat.
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Shackleton - Naked (2006)

Excerpt from "Naked" by Shackleton, demonstrating a bass drop.
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Dubstep's early roots are in the more experimental releases of UK garage producers, seeking to incorporate elements of drum and bass into the South London-based 2-step garage sound. These experiments often ended up on the B-side of a white label or commercial garage release.[4][7][8] Dubstep is generally instrumental. Like a more vocal garage hybrid - grime - the genre's feel is commonly dark; tracks frequently use a minor key and can feature dissonant harmonies such as the tritone interval within a riff. Other distinguishing features often found are the use of samples, a propulsive, sparse rhythm,[9] and an almost omnipresent sub-bass. Some dubstep artists have also incorporated a variety of outside influences, from dub-influenced techno such as Basic Channel to classical music or heavy metal.[9][10][11]
[edit]
Rhythm

Dubstep rhythms are usually syncopated, and often shuffled or incorporating tuplets. The tempo is nearly always in the range of 138-142bpm.[9] In its early stages, dubstep was often more percussive, with more influences from 2-step and grime drum patterns. A lot of producers were also experimenting with tribal drum samples, a notable example being Loefah's early release "Truly Dread". Over time, key producers at the time started to experiment with the half-step rhythm which created more of a spacious vibe, and head-nodding rhythm, a feature which started to be used more and more and has become a signature of the genre. Similarly, the half-step rhythm also started to dominate grime, and producers started to lose the more complex and jerky rhythms influenced from 2-step, and started to work with more hip-hop influenced beats.

Dubstep rhythms typically do not follow the four-to-the-floor patterns common in many other styles of electronic dance music such as techno and house but tend to rely on longer percussion loops than the four-bar phrases present in much techno or house. Often, a track's percussion will follow a pattern which when heard alone will appear to be playing at half the tempo of the track; the double-time feel is instead achieved by other elements, usually the bassline. An example of this tension generated by the conflicting tempo can be listened on the right. The song features a very sparse rhythm almost entirely composed of kick drum, snare drum, and a sparse hi-hat, with a distinctly half time implied 71bpm tempo. The track is instead propelled by a sub-bass following a four to the floor 142bpm pattern.

In an Invisible Jukebox interview with The Wire, Kode9 commented on a DJ MRK1 (formerly Mark One) track, observing that listeners "have internalized the double-time rhythm" and the "track is so empty it makes [the listener] nervous, and you almost fill in the double time yourself, physically, to compensate".[12]
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Wobble bass

One characteristic of certain strands of dubstep is the wobble bass, where an extended bass note is manipulated rhythmically. This style of bass is typically produced by using a low frequency oscillator to manipulate certain parameters of a synthesizer such as volume, distortion or filter cutoff. The resulting sound is a timbre that is punctuated by rhythmic variations in volume, filter cut-off, or distortion. This style of bass is a driving factor in most variations of dubstep.
[edit]
Structure, bass drops, rewinds and MCs

Mala of Digital Mystikz

Originally, dubstep releases had some structural similarities to other genres like drum and bass and UK garage. Typically this would comprise an intro, a main section (often incorporating a bass drop), a midsection, a second main section similar to the first (often with another drop), and an outro.

Many dubstep tracks incorporate one or more "bass drops", a characteristic inherited from drum 'n' bass. Typically, the percussion will pause, often reducing the track to silence, and then resume with more intensity, accompanied by a dominant subbass (often passing portamento through an entire octave or more, as in the audio example). However, this is by no means a completely rigid characteristic, rather a trope; a large portion of seminal tunes from producers like Kode9 and Horsepower Productions have more experimental song structures which don't rely on a drop for a dynamic peak - and in some instances don't feature a bass drop at all.

Rewinds (or reloads)[13] are another technique used by dubstep DJs. If a song seems to be especially popular, the DJ will 'spin back' the record by hand without lifting the stylus, and play the track in question again. Rewinds are also an important live element in many of dubstep's precursors; the technique originates in dub reggae soundsystems, is a standard of most pirate radio stations and is also used at UK garage and jungle nights.[14]

Taking direct cues from Jamaica's lyrically sparse deejay and toasting mic styles in the vein of reggae pioneers like U-Roy, the MC's role in dubstep's live experience is critically important to its impact.[15] As the music is largely instrumental, the MC operates in a similar context to drum and bass and is generally more of a complement to the music rather than the deliverer of lyrical content.[16]

Notable mainstays in the live experience of the sound are MC Sgt Pokes and MC Crazy D from London, and Juakali from Trinidad.[17][18][19][20] Production in a studio environment seems to lend itself to more experimentation. Kode9 has collaborated extensively with the Spaceape, who MCs in a dread poet style. Kevin Martin's experiments with the genre are almost exclusively collaborations with MCs such as Warrior Queen, Flowdan, and Tippa Irie. Skream has also featured Warrior Queen and grime artist JME on his debut album, Skream!. Plastician, who was one of the first DJ's to mix the sound of grime and dubstep together,[10] has worked with notable grime setup Boy Better Know as well as renowned Grime MC's such as Wiley, Dizzee Rascal and Lethal Bizzle. He has also released tracks with a dubstep foundation and grime verses over the beats.[21] MaSp, Coki and Mala of Digital Mystikz have experimented with abrupt, 16-bar intros and have produced tracks with dub vocalists,[22] and dubstep artist and label co-owner Sam Shackleton has moved toward productions which fall outside the usual dubstep tempo, and sometimes entirely lack most of the common tropes of the genre.[23]
[edit]
History
[edit]
Early foundations

While dubstep is its own distinct form of electronic music, its roots are surely located within Jamaican dub music and soundsystem cultures. Jamaican soundsystems were "large mobile hi-fi or disco...[with] an emphasis on the reproduction of bass frequencies, its own aesthetics and a unique mode of consumption".[24] These soundsystems represented the appearance of records (dub plates) as modes of legitimate artistic creation. This was an integral moment in the evolution of electronic musics, both in Britain and worldwide.

Jamaican soundsystem culture gave birth to the dub variety of reggae music, which itself originated many of dubstep's characteristic sounds and sonic techniques. Features like sub-bass (bass less than 100 Hz), skittering and jittery drums (which would later be termed '2-step'), distortive echo and reverberation effects were all used prominently.[24] These features, along with held over soundsystem techniques, went on to form the crux of numerous electronic musics which emerged from Britain, including jungle, garage, and eventually dubstep.

Sub-bass, however, has also been present in British dance music since the early 1990s - LFO by LFO on the Warp Records label, released in 1990 features sub-bass throughout, as does the B-side mix of Charly by The Prodigy (1991). Altern 8's early breakbeat house/techno release Infiltrate 202 - also from 1991 - begins with the phrase, "watch yer bassbins" referring to the heavy sub-bass running throughout the track.[citation needed] Another early sub-bass tune is Some Justice by Urban Shakedown, made in 1992 entirely on two Commodore Amiga 500 computers, achieved some chart success upon its release. The sub-bass in this track also rises and falls initially in a rather slow, then later speeding-up, oscillation pattern similar to a dubstep bassline.
[edit]
1999–2002: origins

The Mixing Records record shop, formerly Big Apple Records, in Croydon, South London

The sound of dubstep originally came out of productions by El-B,[7] Steve Gurley,[7] Oris Jay,[11] and Zed Bias[25][26] in 1999-2000. Ammunition Promotions, who run the influential club Forward>> and have managed many proto dubstep record labels (including Tempa, Soulja, Road, Vehicle, Shelflife, Texture, Lifestyle and Bingo),[5][11] began to use the term "dubstep" to describe this style of music in around 2002. The term's use in a 2002 XLR8R cover story (featuring Horsepower Productions on the cover) contributed to it becoming established as the name of the genre.[25][27] It gained full acceptance with the Dubstep Allstars Vol 1 CD (Tempa) mixed by DJ Hatcha.[28][29]

The club Forward>> was originally held at the Velvet Rooms in London's Soho and is now running every Sunday at Plastic People in Shoreditch, east London.[9] Founded in 2001, Forward>> was critical to the development of dubstep, providing the first venue devoted to the sound and an environment in which dubstep producers could premier new music.[30] Around this time, Forward>> was also incubating several other strains of dark garage hybrids, so much so that in the early days of the club the coming together of these strains was referred to as the "Forward>> sound".[31] An online flyer from around this time encapsulated the Forward>> sound as "b-lines to make your chest cavity shudder."[32]

Forward>> also ran a radio show on east London pirate station Rinse FM, hosted by Kode9.[33][34][35] The original Forward>> line ups included Hatcha, Youngsta, Kode9, Zed Bias, Oris Jay,[11] Slaughter Mob, Jay Da Flex, Slimzee and others, plus regular guests. The line up of residents has changed over the years to include Youngsta, Hatcha, Geeneus and Plastician, with Crazy D as MC/host. Producers including D1, Skream and Benga make regular appearances.[30]

Another crucial element in the early development of dubstep was the Big Apple Records record shop in Croydon.[5] Key artists such as Hatcha and later Skream worked in the shop (which initially sold early UK Hardcore / Rave, Techno and House and later, garage and drum and bass, but evolved with the emerging dubstep scene in the area),[7] while Digital Mystikz were frequent visitors. El-B, Zed Bias, Horsepower Productions, Plastician, N Type, Walsh and a young Loefah regularly visited the shop as well.[5] The shop and its record label have since closed down[25] and reopened under the name Mixing Records under new management before closing down again in 2010. The shop's site is currently unused and still stands in the north end of Surrey Street, Croydon.

In an article in The Guardian, Simon Reynolds examined the idea of any links between the recreational use of ketamine, a dissociative drug, and the origins of dubstep, writing that a connection "would certainly explain a lot", though also conceding "it could all be just rumour".[36]
[edit]
2002–2005: evolution

Dubstep producer Skream, one of the most widely known names on the scene since the beginning of the Dubstep movement

Throughout 2003, DJ Hatcha pioneered a new direction for dubstep on Rinse FM and through his sets at Forward>>.[5][26] Playing sets cut to 10" one-off reggae-style dubplates, he drew exclusively from a pool of new South London producers—first Benga and Skream,[26] then also Digital Mystikz and Loefah—to begin a dark, clipped and minimal new direction in dubstep.[37]

At the end of 2003, running independently from the pioneering FWD night, an event called Filthy Dub, co promoted by Plastician, and partner David Carlisle started happening regularly. It was there that Skream, Benga, N Type, Walsh, Chef, Loefah and Cyrus made their debuts as DJ's. South London collective Digital Mystikz (Mala and Coki), along with labelmates and collaborators Loefah and MC Sgt Pokes soon came into their own, bringing sound system thinking, dub values, and appreciation of jungle bass weight to the dubstep scene.[25] Digital Mystikz brought an expanded palette of sounds and influences to the genre, most prominently reggae and dub, as well as orchestral melodies.[38]

After releasing 12"s on Big Apple, they founded DMZ Records, which has released fourteen 12"s to date. They also began their night DMZ, held every two months in Brixton,[39] a part of London already strongly associated with reggae.[40] DMZ has showcased new dubstep artists such as Skream, Kode 9, Benga, Pinch, DJ Youngsta, Hijak, Joe Nice and Vex'd. DMZ's first anniversary event (at the Mass venue, a converted church) saw fans attending from places as far away as Sweden, the U.S., and Australia, leading to a queue of 600 people[41] at the event. This forced the club to move from its regular 400-capacity space[6] to Mass' main room, an event cited as a pivotal moment in dubstep's history.[11][42]

In 2004, Richard James' label, Rephlex, released two compilations that included dubstep tracks - the (perhaps misnamed) Grime and Grime 2. The first featured Plasticman , Mark One and Slaughter Mob,[43] with Kode 9, Loefah and Digital Mystikz appearing on the second.[44] These compilations helped to raise awareness of dubstep at a time when the grime sound was drawing more attention,[25] and Digital Mystikz and Loefah's presence on the second release contributed to the success of their DMZ club night.[45] Soon afterwards, the Independent on Sunday commented on "a whole new sound", at a time when both genres were becoming popular, stating that "grime" and "dubstep" were two names for the same style, which was also known as "sublow", "8-bar" and "eskibeat".[46]
[edit]
2005–2008: growth

Dubstep Section at Black Market Records, Soho, London

In the summer of 2005, Forward>> brought grime DJs to the fore of the line up.[47] Building on the success of Skream's grimey anthem "Midnight Request Line," the hype around the DMZ night and support from online forums (notably dubstepforum.com[9]) and media,[6] the scene gained prominence after former Radio 1 DJ Mary Anne Hobbs gathered top figures from the scene for one show, entitled "Dubstep Warz", (later releasing the compilation album "Warrior Dubz").[41] The show created a new global audience for the scene, after years of exclusively UK underground buzz.[9] Burial's self-titled album appearing in many critics' "Best of..." lists for the year, notably The Wire's Best Album of 2006.[48][49] The sound was also featured prominently in the soundtrack for the 2006 sci-fi film Children of Men,[50] which included Digital Mystikz, Random Trio, Kode 9, Pressure and DJ Pinch.[51] Ammunition also released the first retrospective compilation of the 2000-2004 era of dubstep called "The Roots of Dubstep", co-compiled by Ammunition and Blackdown on the Tempa Label.[52] Skream - Midnight Request Line (2005)

Excerpt from "Midnight Request Line" by Skream, one of the most widely known dubstep tracks.
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The sound's first North American ambassador, Baltimore DJ Joe Nice helped kickstart its spread into the continent.[9] Regular Dubstep club nights started appearing in cities like New York,[53] San Francisco,[27] Seattle, Montreal, Houston, and Denver,[54] while Mary Anne Hobbs curated a Dubstep showcase at 2007's Sónar festival in Barcelona.[11] Non-British artists have also won praise within the larger Dubstep community.[11] The dynamic dubstep scene in Japan is growing quickly despite its cultural and geographical distance from the West. Such DJ/producers as Goth-trad, Hyaku-mado, Ena and Doppelganger are major figures in the Tokyo scene.[55] Joe Nice has played at DMZ,[56] while the fifth installment of Tempa's "Dubstep Allstars" mix series (released in 2007) included tracks by Finnish producer Tes La Rok and Americans JuJu and Matty G.[57] Following on from Rinse FM's pioneering start; three internet based radio station's called SubFM, DubstepFM and DubTerrain started to play the sound exclusively with 24 hour broadcasting featuring show archives and live DJ shows.

BBC Radio 1 DJ Mary Anne Hobbs

Techno artists and DJs are now assimilating dubstep into their sets and productions.[11] Shackleton's "Blood On My Hands" was remixed by minimal techno producer Ricardo Villalobos (an act reciprocated when Villalobos included a Shackleton mix on his "Vasco" EP) [58] and included on a mix CD by Panoramabar resident Cassy.[11] Ellen Allien and Apparat's 2006 song "Metric" (from the Orchestra of Bubbles album),[59][60] Modeselektor's Godspeed (from the 2007's Happy Birthday! album, among other tracks on that same album) and Roman Flugel's remix of Riton's "Hammer of Thor" are other examples of dubstep-influenced techno.[11] Berlin's Hard Wax record store (operated by influential[61] dub techno artists Basic Channel)[62][63] has also championed Shackleton's Skull Disco label, later broadening its focus to include other dubstep releases.[10]

The summer of 2007 saw dubstep's musical palette expand further, with Benga and Coki scoring a crossover hit (in a similar manner to Skream's "Midnight Request Line") with the track "Night", which gained widespread play from DJs in a diverse range of genres. BBC Radio 1 DJ Gilles Peterson named it his record of 2007, and it was also a massive hit in the equally bassline-orientated, but decidedly more four-to-the-floor genre of bassline house,[64] whilst Burial's late 2007 release Untrue (which was nominated for the 2008 Nationwide Mercury Music Prize in the UK) incorporated extensive use of heavily manipulated, mostly female, 'girl next door' vocal samples.[65] Burial has spoken at length regarding his intent to reincorporate elements of musical precursors such as 2-step garage and house into his sound.[66]

Some critics have also seen a dubstep influence in the Britney Spears song "Freakshow" (from her 2007 album Blackout), which Tom Ewing describes as "built around the 'wobbler' effect that's a genre standby."[67][68]

Much like drum and bass before it, dubstep has started to become incorporated into other media, particularly in the United Kingdom. In 2007, Benga, Skream, and other dubstep producers provided the soundtrack to much of the second series of Dubplate Drama, which aired on Channel 4 with a soundtrack CD later released on Rinse Recordings. The sound also featured prominently in the second series of the teen drama Skins, which also aired on Channel 4 in early 2008.

In the summer of 2008, Mary Anne Hobbs invited Cyrus, Starkey, Oneman, DJ Chef, Silkie, Quest, Joker, Nomad, Kulture and MC Sgt Pokes to the BBC's Maida Vale studios for a show called Generation Bass.[69][70][71][72] The show was the evolution from her seminal BBC Radio 1 Dubstepwarz Show in 2006, and further documented another set of dubstep's producers.

In the autumn of 2008, a limited pressing 12" called "Iron Devil"[73] was released featuring Lee Scratch Perry and Prince Far-I in a dubstep style, including a tune based on the Perry riddim used on reggae hits like "Disco Devil", "Chase The Devil", and "Croaking Lizard". This was the first recorded example of a founder of Jamaican dub style acknowledging dubstep and creating new music in the genre, reinforcing the connection of dubstep to its roots in Jamaican dub reggae at a time when it seemed dubstep was moving away from its reggae underpinnings.

As the genre has spread to become an international rather than UK-centric scene, it has also seen a number of women making headway into the scene in a variety of ways. Alongside Soulja of Ammunition Promotions and Mary Anne Hobbs, an influx of female producers, writers, photographers and DJs all have broken through, in the up-til-then male orientated scene, without making gender an issue. With key 12" releases on Hyperdub, Immigrant and Hotflush Recordings, producers Vaccine, Subeena and Ikonika have introduced a palette of new sounds and influences to the genre, such as double-time bass drums, 8-bit video game samples, hand percussion and lushly arranged strings.[74] Mary Anne Hobbs commented that the mood at dubstep nights is less aggressive, or more meditative, leading to a larger female attendance at events than with the genre's precursors, noting "Grime and drum 'n' bass raves tend to be quite aggy. People in dubstep clubs tend to have a more meditative approach, which is inviting to females. You see the female-to-male ratio constantly going up – it’s got the potential to be 40:60".[74]

Journalists Melissa Bradshaw,[75][76] Emma Warren,[77][78] and dubstep documentarian and photographer Georgina Cook have all had massive impact on the cultural importance of the music. Cook's Drumz of the South flickr page documents the evolution of the scene in a photographic timeline of sorts, and was for a time the only photographic archive of the key events such as the early FWD and DMZ nights in London.[74][79][80][81]
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2009 to present: mainstream influence

The year 2009 saw the dubstep sound gained further worldwide recognition, often through the assimilation of elements of the sound into other genres, in a manner similar to drum and bass before it. At the start of the year, UK electronic duo La Roux put their single "In for the Kill" in the remix hands of Skream,[82][83] they then gave remix duties of "I'm Not Your Toy" to Nero and then again with their single "Bulletproof" being remixed by Zinc. Benga and Coki's single "Night" still continued to be a popular track on the UK dance chart more than a year after its release in late 2007, still ranking in the top five at the start of April on Pete Tong's BBC Radio 1 dance chart list.[84]

London producer Silkie released an influential album City Limits Vol. 1 on the Deep Medi label, using 70s funk and soul reference points, a departure from the familiar strains of dub and UK garage.[85][86]

In a move foreshadowed by endorsements of the sound from R&B, hip-hop and recently pop figures such as Britney Spears, Kesha, Rihanna, Public Enemy's Hank Shocklee,[87] Snoop Dogg collaborated with drum and bass producers Chase & Status, providing a vocal for their UK underground anthem "Eastern Jam". This propelled the tune into the biggest radio markets overnight, with considerable airplay.[88][89] Rihanna collaborated with the production duo on her 2009 album Rated R. Other hip-hop artists like Xzibit added their vocals to dubstep instrumental tracks for the mixtape project Mr Grustle & Tha Russian Dubstep LA Embrace The Renaissance Vol. 1 Mixed by Plastician.[88][90] By the late summer, female rapper and actress Eve used Benga's "E Trips"; adding her own verses over the beat to create a new tune called "Me N My"; the first single on her album Flirt. The track was co-produced by Benga and noted hip hop producer Salaam Remi.[91][92]

The sound has also continued to interest the mainstream press with key articles in magazines like Interview, New York, and The Wire, which featured producer Kode9 on its May 2009 cover. XLR8R put Joker on the cover of its December 2009 issue.[17][93][94][95] By the end of 2009, The New York Times, XLR8R, NME and The Sunday Times all reviewed the genre.[96][97][98][99]

By 2010, it was beginning to hit the pop charts, with "I Need Air" by Magnetic Man reaching number 10 in the UK singles chart. This presented a turning point in the popularity of mainstream dubstep amongst UK listeners as it was placed on rotation on BBC Radio 1.[100] "Katy On a Mission" by Katy B (produced by Benga) followed, debuting at number 5 in the UK singles chart, and stayed in the top 10 for five more weeks.[101]

During mid-2010, metalcore/post-hardcore bands such as The Word Alive began to incorporate dubstep pieces into their music, during areas within their songs such as bridges, breakdowns and climaxes.[102][103]

In 2011, "Hold It Against Me", the first single from Britney Spears' seventh album, was noted for its dubstep-influenced beats.[104] In February 2011, Chase & Status's Second album "No More Idols" Reached No.2 In The UK album chart. [105]
[edit]
See also
List of dubstep musicians
[edit]
References
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^ Braddock, Kevin (2004-02-22). "Partners in Grime". The Independent.
^ Martin, Clark (2005-06-22). "The Month In: Grime/Dubstep". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
^ Butler, Nick (19 June 2007). "Burial - Burial". Sputnikmusic. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
^ The Wire
^ Reynolds, Simon. "Reasons to Be Cheerful (Just Three)" (– Scholar search). The Village Voice. Retrieved 2007-07-18.[dead link]
^ "Cast and Credits for "Children of Men"". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
^ Cyclic Defrost - Issue #015 (November 2006) - Various Artists - The Roots Of Dubstep (Tempa)
^ "Brand new heavy". Time out New York (544). 2006-03-02. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
^ Palermo, Tomas (2007-06-18). "The Week In Dubstep". XLR8R. Archived from the original on August 24, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-18.
^ McBride, Blair."Japan's dubstep forges own path; Goth-trad, 100mado build scene from scratch". Japan Times. March 19, 2010
^ Pitchfork Feature: Column: The Month in Grime / Dubstep
^ Warren, Emma (22 April 2007). "Various, Dubstep Allstars 5 - Mixed By DJ N-Type". Guardian Unlimited (London). Retrieved 13 June 2007.
^ Vasco EP Part 1 | Pitchfork
^ De Jong, Nate (2006-04-19). "Stylus Review of "Orchestra of Bubbles"". Stylus Magazine. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
^ Sherburne, Philip (2006-05-04). "Pitchfork Review of "Orchestra of Bubbles"". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 2007-07-19.
^ Losing your mind in Berlin (Metro Times Detroit)
^ philip sherburne: November 2005 Archives
^ Blackdown: One Friday night
^ Pitchfork Feature: Column: The Month in Grime / Dubstep
^ Burial: Beautiful Dread, Inviting and Sinister : NPR Music
^ Goodman, Steve (2007-11-01). "Kode9 interviews Burial". Hyperdub. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
^ Ewing, Tom (2007-11-20). "Column: Poptimist #10: Britney in the Black Lodge (Damn Fine Album)". Pitchfork Media. Retrieved 2007-11-21.
^ Segal, Dave (2007-11-06). "Have You Heard of This Britney Spears Chick?". Heard Mentality:The OC Weekly Music Blog (Village Voice Media). Retrieved 2007-11-21.
^ "Mary Anne Hobbs - TV". BBC. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Broadcast Yourself". YouTube. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Radio One Hosts Generation Bass « RWD". Rwdmag.com. 2008-08-18. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Generation Bass « n3k4.com". n3k4.com. 2008-08-18. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ Link to Discogs page for Lee "Scratch" Perry, Dubbblestandart, Subatomic Sound System, Prince Far-I "Iron Devil" 12" http://www.discogs.com/Dubblestandart-fe...release/1554929
^ a b c Women in dubstep - Time Out London
^ When We Meet: Issue 24 - Plan B Magazine
^ Dubstep - Plan B Magazine
^ Warren, Emma (2008-02-04). The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/emmawarren. Retrieved 2010-05-01.
^ Red Bull Music Academy - People
^ Decks in the City
^ Flickr: infinite's Photostream
^ BBC - Collective - Gallery - Dubstep
^ Grundy, Gareth (2009-03-15). "Electronic review: La Roux, In For the Kill (Skream remix) | Music | The Observer". London: Guardian. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Freeload: La Roux, “In For The Kill (Skream’s Let’s Get Ravey Remix) « The FADER". Thefader.com. 2009-04-14. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Radio 1 - BBC Radio 1's Chart Show with Reggie Yates - UK Top 40 Dance Singles". BBC. 2007-02-24. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "music & art news, upfront videos, free downloads, classic vinyl, competitions, gigs, clubs, festivals & exhibitions - New talent: Silkie". FACT magazine. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Grime / Dubstep: Grime / Dubstep". Pitchfork. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Dazed Digital | Hank Shocklee". Dazedgroup.com. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ a b "Dubstep it up - Features, Music". London: The Independent. 2009-04-24. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "XXLmag.com". XXLmag.com. 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Alexander Spit". Dubstepped.net. 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Track Reviews: Eve - "Me N My (Up in the Club)"". Pitchfork. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Eve, “Me N My (prod. by Salaam Remi & Benga)” MP3 « The FADER". Thefader.com. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "The London Dubstep Scene". Interview Magazine. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "Adventures in Modern Music: Issues". The Wire. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ http://www.xlr8r.com/magazine/130
^ Jon Caramanica, "Washes of Sound, Wobbles of Bass," The New York Times September 22, 2009, at p. C5, also found at The New York Times website. Retrieved September 22, 2009.
^ "Mutant Funk: Cooly G, Geeneus, and Roska take UK funky and dubstep back to the lab.". XLR8R. 2009-09-24. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ "2009: The Year That Dubstep Broke - Timeline Playlist - New Music Radar - NME.COM - The world's fastest music news service, music videos, interviews, photos and free stuff to win". Nme.Com. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
^ Fitzpatrick, Rob (2009-10-11). "Steve Goodman keeps on pioneering". The Times (London).
^ Magnetic Man - 'I Need Air' BBC - Chart Blog
^ [1] UK Chart: Week Ending 04-Sept-2010
^ "Deceiver review". Allmusic.
^ "Deceiver review". Alternative Press.
^ Cragg, Michael (2011-01-10). "New music: Britney Spears - Hold It Against Me". The Guardian (London).
^ http://www.chartstats.com/release.php?release=49925
[edit]
External links
Dubstepforum The largest worldwide dubstep community. Instrumental in the development of the genre.
GetDarker An online magazine full of interviews, articles, photos from events and videos.
FilthFM A radio station dedicated to dubstep, grime, and drum and bass sounds.
BBC Collective dubstep documentary filmed at DMZ 1st Birthday, 2005. Interviews with Mala, Loefah, Skream, Kode9, Youngsta...
10 Years of... Dubstep A week dedicated to the movement by Drowned in Sound
The Month In: Grime/Dubstep Columns by Martin Clark on Pitchfork Media
This Means War: NYC Dubstep By Flora Fair on Synconation
Wobble Bass production tutorial by Image-Line Software makers of FL Studio[hide]
v · d · e
UK garage

2-step - Bassline - Breakstep - Dubstep - Funky - Grime - Speed garage

Other electronic music genres Ambient · Breakbeat · Drum and bass · Electro · Eurodance · Hardcore · Hi-NRG · House · Industrial · Synthpop · Techno · Trance · Trip hop · UK garage



Categories: Dubstep | Electronic music genres | Music from London | Youth culture in the United Kingdom | 2010s in music | Fusion music genres
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Mary Anne Hobbs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Mary Anne Hobbs
Born 16 May 1964 (age 46)
Preston, Lancashire, England
Show Radio 1's Experimental Show
Station(s) BBC Radio 1
Time slot 2:00 - 4:00 a.m. Thursday
Style DJ (dubstep, grime, hip hop, drum and bass, techno, experimental)
Country United Kingdom
Website Mary Anne Hobbs


Mary Anne Hobbs (born 16 May 1964 in Preston, Lancashire, England) is an English DJ and music journalist from Garstang, Lancashire.Contents [hide]
1 Early career
2 Radio shows
3 References
4 External links

[edit]
Early career

In the 1980s, Hobbs lived on a bus in a carpark in Hayes, Hillingdon with the hard rock band Heretic before becoming a journalist for Sounds Magazine[1] at age 19. She later went to work for the NME before going on to help found Loaded Magazine. While with the NME she served as a freelance U.K. music news correspondent in Canada on CBC Radio One, filing a weekly report for a program called The Beat. This contributed to her big break in radio with BBC GLR, working alongside Mark Lamarr.

She then worked at XFM before being headhunted by BBC Radio 1 after a confrontational interview on XFM with Radio 1's Trevor Dann.[2] She shot a TV series about global biker culture 'Mary Anne's Bikes' in Japan, America, Russia, India, and Europe for BBC Choice & BBC World in 2003, and presented the World Superbikes series 2005 for British Eurosport. She also compèred the Leeds Festival between 1999 and 2003.
[edit]
Radio shows

Mary Anne Hobbs live

A fan of rock, metal (and with a love of motorbikes) from an early age, Hobbs fronted the Radio 1 Rock Show and the experimental / electronic Breezeblock on BBC Radio 1 for fourteen years. In September 2006 the Breezeblock name was dropped for the title 'Experimental', but the show retained the name of its host in the title. Most recently, Hobbs has been a notable champion of the dubstep and grime genres. Her 2 hour special 'Dubstep Warz' on BBC Radio 1 in January 2006 is widely regarded as the show that broke the dubstep sound globally[citation needed] and consequently she has become viewed by many on the Dubstep scene as Godmother figure. She released a groundbreaking dark electronic compilation album on Planet Mu records entitled Warrior Dubz in October 2006, drawing the sonic parallels between dubstep, grime, dark dancefloor, techno, d&b and hip hop. In June 2007, Hobbs curated the UK Dubstep showcase at the Sónar festival with Skream, Oris Jay and Kode9, taking the sound out of club environments and onto an international festival stage in front of 8,500 people for the very first time. On 7 February 2008 the "Dubstep Souljahs" documentary she made for BBC Radio 1 aired inside Pete Tong's In New Music We Trust show.[3] Her second compilation album, Evangeline, was released on 16 June 2008 on Planet Mu records.[4] This coincided with her second Sonar Festival Stage featuring Shackleton, Flying Lotus and Mala from Digital Mystikz. In 2009 she returned to the festival with Joker, The Gaslamp Killer and Martyn, and in 2010 again with Flying Lotus and also with new British producers/DJs Roska and Joy Orbison.

On 23 July 2010 Hobbs announced on her Myspace page that she was leaving the BBC and her last show was on 9 September. She has accepted a new job at University of Sheffield Union of Students.

Hobbs is mentioned in the Half Man Half Biscuit song 'Nove On The Sly' from the album 'Trouble Over Bridgwater'.[5]
[edit]
References
^ [1]
^ [2]
^ Mary Anne Hobbs does Dubstep, beatportal.com
^ Evangeline playlist, Planet Mu Records.
^ http://www.chrisrand.com/hmhb/trouble-ov...water/nove-sly/
[edit]
External links
Official website
Mary Anne Hobbs at BBC Programmes
Mary Anne Hobbs on Myspace
Mary Anne Hobbs on Twitter
Mary Anne Hobbs channel on YouTube
Categories: People from Garstang | British radio DJs | Dubstep musicians | Living people | 1964 births
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Hayes, Hillingdon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with Hayes, Bromley. This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010)


Coordinates: 51.5127°N 0.4211°WHayes


Hayes

Hayes shown within Greater London
OS grid reference TQ095805
- Charing Cross 13 mi (21 km) E
London borough Hillingdon
Ceremonial county Greater London
Region London
Country England
Sovereign state United Kingdom
Post town HAYES
Postcode district UB3, UB4
Dialling code 020
Police Metropolitan
Fire London
Ambulance London
EU Parliament London
UK Parliament Hayes and Harlington
London Assembly Ealing and Hillingdon
List of places: UK • England • London


Hayes is a town in the London Borough of Hillingdon, West London. It is a suburban development situated 13 miles (21 km) west of Charing Cross. Hayes was developed in the late 19th and 20th centuries as an industrial locality to which residential districts were later added to house factory workers. Its development is typical of the Second Industrial Revolution - the creation of new light engineering industries on the edge of existing cities. It has a diverse population.Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Industry
2.2 Development as a suburb
3 Transport and locale
3.1 Buses
3.2 Trains
3.3 Road
3.4 Water
3.5 Culture
4 Education
5 Notable people
5.1 Nearest places
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit]
Etymology

The name comes from Anglo-Saxon Hǣs or Hǣse = "(land overgrown with) brushwood"
[edit]
History

Until the end of the 19th century, Hayes (West London), was primarily an agricultural and brickmaking area. However, because of its location on the Grand Junction Canal (later called the Grand Union) and the Great Western Railway it had a number of advantages as an industrial location in the late 19th century. It was because of this proximity that the Hayes Development Company offered sites on the north side of the railway, adjacent to the canal.
[edit]
Industry

Hayes has always been heavily involved with Industry, both local and International, and is (or has been) the home of EMI, Nestlé, H. J. Heinz Company, and past companies include Fairey Aviation (later merged with Westland), and HMV.

An early occupier was the Gramophone Company, later His Master's Voice and latterly EMI. Only the EMI archives and some early reinforced concrete factory buildings, notably one (1912) by Evan Owen Williams, later knighted, remain.

It was here in the Central Research Laboratories (generally known as "CRL") that Isaac Shoenberg developed (1934) the all-electronic 405-line television system (called the EMI-Marconi system, used by the BBC from 1936 until closedown of the Crystal Palace 405 line transmissions in 1985).

Alan Blumlein carried out his research into binaural sound and stereo gramophone recording here. "Trains at Hayes Station" (1935) and "Walking & Talking" are two notable films Blumlein shot to demonstrate stereo sound on film. These films are held at the Hayes EMI archive.

In 1939, working alongside the electrical firms A.C. Cossor and Pye, a 60 MHz radar was developed, and from 1941 to 1943 the H2S radar system.

During the 1990s, CRL spawned another technology: Sensaura 3D positional audio. In an echo of Blumlein's early stereo recordings, the Sensaura engineers made some of their first 3D audio recordings at Hayes Station.

In World War I the EMI factories produced aircraft. Richard Fairey was seconded there for a short time, before setting up his own company, Fairey Aviation, which relocated across the railway. Needing an airfield to test his aircraft he secured a site at the south east of what is now Heathrow Airport, which was acquired by the Ministry of Aviation towards the end of World War II, which renamed it, Heathrow, which was to become Britain's most important airport.

The Nestlé company located its major chocolate and instant coffee works on the canal, adjacent to the railway east of the station, and it was for many years, the UK headquarters of the company.

Opposite Nestlé on the other side of the canal, the Aeolian company and its associates manufactured player pianos and rolls from just before World War I until the Great Depression. That, and the increasing sophistication of the gramophone record market lead to its collapse, and its facilities were then exploited by Wall's, a meat processor and ice cream manufacturer.

From the early 1970s to 2003 McAlpine Helicopters Limited and Operation Support Services Limited (later renamed McAlpine Aviation Services Limited) operated from two purpose built aircraft hangars in Swallowfield Way industrial estate. As this company operated on land already owned by the Sir Robert McAlpine group the land on the otherside of the Grand Union Canal is called Stockley Park (also owned by the group) and its buildings were intentionally positioned to allow safe passage for helicopters into the heliport in case of an emergency - fortunately this was never used.
[edit]
Development as a suburb

Since development, industry has been pre-eminent in Hayes, and the provision of adequate housing did not begin until after World War I with the creation of modest dwellings of the garden suburb type.

George Orwell, who adopted this pseudonym while living here, worked as a schoolmaster at The Hawthorns High School for Boys, situated in Church Road. The school has since closed and is now known as The Fountain House Hotel. He hated his time in Hayes, camouflaging it lightly as West Bletchley in Coming Up for Air, as Southbridge in A Clergyman's Daughter and saying of it:

Hayes ... is one of the most godforsaken places I have ever struck. The population seems to be entirely made up of clerks who frequent tin-roofed chapels on Sundays and for the rest bolt themselves hello within doors.

The man known as "the father of English music", William Byrd lived in Harlington in the 1540s and a primary school in the area bears his name.
[edit]
Transport and locale

St. Mary's Church, Hayes, overlooking Barra Hall Park
[edit]
Buses

Hayes has the following bus routes travelling through it:90, 105, 140, 195, 207, 222, 350, 423, 427, 607, 696, 697, 698, H98, U4, U5, U7, E6, N9 and N207
[edit]
Trains

Hayes and Harlington station offers frequent local services to London Paddington in about 15–20 minutes, and services to Oxford, Reading, Slough, and Heathrow Airport. First Great Western trains are available from Hayes & Harlington Station. Every 30 minutes there is a service to Heathrow Airport. The proposed Crossrail service will pass through Hayes & Harlington
[edit]
Road

The area is close to junctions 3 and 4 of the M4 Motorway. The A312 is the main north-south route. The A4020 "Uxbridge Road" is the main West-East route passing directly through Hayes.
[edit]
Water

The Grand Union Canal runs through Hayes passing near the station and shopping area. Travellers by boat may moor at Hayes and take advantage of its local amenities, which are few, given the importance of the town, such as shops, banks etc.
[edit]
Culture

Hayes has no cinema and limited night-life. It does boast a theatre, the Beck. This offers a wide range of touring shows in a pleasant modern building. Most of the shows are aimed at the less "highbrow" end of the theatre market with light entertainment being far more prevalent than serious drama. Other cultural amenities include some very good parks and gardens, particularly the Barra Hall Park that is maintained to a high standard by the local authority. In 2010 a brand new sports centre incorporating the local library was opened in the centre of the towm. It includes a swimming pool and other sporting and fitness facilities.
[edit]
Education

Secondary schools in Hayes include Barnhill Community High School,[1] Guru Nanak Secondary School,[2] Harlington Community School,[3] Mellow Lane High School,[4] and Rosedale College.[5]

Uxbridge College's Hayes Campus is in Hayes.[6]

The Botwell Green Library has now replaced the old Hayes Library, and is located in the new Botwell Green Sports and Leisure Centre.[7]
[edit]
Notable people
Actress Anne Marie Duff grew up in Hayes
Birthplace of England national football team player Glenn Hoddle.
80's pop star Buster Bloodvessel of Bad Manners lives on a canal boat in Hayes.
Actress Jane Seymour, perhaps best known for her role as Solitaire in the James Bond film Live And Let Die
Comic / Children's Book Writer Tony Lee.
Greg Dyke grew up in Hayes
Footballer Ray Wilkins grew up in Hayes
Malcolm Owen and Paul Fox from punk band The Ruts grew up in Hayes
Sixties pop group Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers were based in Hayes
Major-General James Grant, C.B.
Musician Paul Gardiner was born in Hayes
[edit]
Nearest places
Yeading
Harlington
Northolt
Southall
Ealing
Hounslow
Hanwell
Uxbridge
[edit]
See also London portal

Hayes, Bromley
Disablement Association of Hillingdon, which is based in Hayes
[edit]
References
^ "Barnhill Community High." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
^ "Guru Nanak Secondary School." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
^ "Harlington Community School." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
^ "Mellow Lane High School." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
^ "Rosedale College." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
^ "Uxbridge College (Hayes Campus)." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
^ "Hayes Library." London Borough of Hillingdon. Retrieved on 27 June 2010.
[edit]
External links
Sir Evan Owen Williams
HayesMiddlesex.com
HillingdonChat.com
Hayes People's History[hide]
v · d · e
London Borough of Hillingdon

District Cowley · Eastcote · Harefield · Harlington · Harmondsworth · Hayes · Heathrow · Hillingdon · Ickenham · Longford · Northwood · Northwood Hills · Ruislip · Ruislip Manor · Sipson · South Ruislip · Uxbridge · West Drayton · Yeading · Yiewsley

Attractions Beck Theatre · Compass Theatre · Ickenham Hall · Manor Farm Ruislip · Heathrow Airport · The Mall Uxbridge

Constituencies Ruislip, Northwood and Pinner · Hayes and Harlington · Uxbridge and South Ruislip

Other topics People · Public art · Schools

Section 10: London Outer Orbital Path Section 11:
Hatton Cross Hayes Uxbridge

Categories: Districts of London | Districts of Hillingdon | Districts of London listed in the Domesday Book | London Loop
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Forest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about a community of trees. For other uses, see Forest (disambiguation).

A conifer forest in the Swiss Alps (National Park).

Mixed deciduous forest in Stara Planina, Serbia.

A forest, also referred to as a wood or the woods and less often as a "wold" (or "weald"), "holt", or "frith" (or "firth"), is an area with a high density of trees. There are many definitions for forest, based on the various criteria.[1][vague] These plant communities cover approximately 9.4% of the Earth's surface (or 30% of total land area), though they once covered much more (about 50% of total land area), in many different regions and function as habitats for organisms, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth's biosphere. Although a forest is classified primarily by trees a forest ecosystem is defined intrinsically with additional species such as fungi.[2]

A typical forest is composed of the overstory (or upper tree layer of the canopy) and the understory. The understory is further subdivided into the shrub layer, herb layer, and sometimes also moss layer. In some complex forests, there is also a well-defined lower tree layer.Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Distribution
3 Classification
3.1 Temperate needleleaf
3.2 Temperate broadleaf and mixed
3.3 Tropical moist
3.4 Tropical dry
3.5 Sparse trees and parkland
3.6 Forest plantations
3.7 Forest categories
3.7.1 Temperate and boreal forest types
3.7.2 Tropical forest types
4 Forest loss and management
5 Gallery
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

[edit]
Etymology

The word "forest" comes from Middle English forest, from Old French forest (also forès) "forest, vast expanse covered by trees", believed to be a borrowing (probably via Frankish or Old High German) of the Medieval Latin word foresta "open wood". Foresta was first used by Carolingian scribes in the Capitularies of Charlemagne to refer specifically to the king's royal hunting grounds. The term was not endemic to Romance languages (e.g. native words for "forest" in the Romance languages evolved out of the Latin word silva "forest, wood"; cf. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese selva; Romanian silvă; Old French selve); and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure. Some authorities claim the word derives from the Late Latin phrase forestam silvam, meaning "the outer wood"; others claim the term is a latinisation of the Frankish word *forhist "forest, wooded country", assimilated to forestam silvam (a common practise among Frankish scribes). Frankish *forhist is attested by Old High German forst "forest", Middle Low German vorst "forest", Old English fyrhþ "forest, woodland, game preserve, hunting ground", and Old Norse fýri "coniferous forest", all of which derive from Proto-Germanic *furχísa-, *furχíþja- "a fir-wood, coniferous forest", from Proto-Indo-European *perkwu- "a coniferous or mountain forest, wooded height". Uses of the word "forest" in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic.[3] The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a legal term (appearing in Latin texts like the Magna Carta) denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest).[3][4] These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all. However, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word "forest" eventually came to mean wooded land more generally.[citation needed] By the start of the fourteenth century the word appeared in English texts, indicating all three senses: the most common one, the legal term and the archaic usage.[3]

Forest near Rajgir, Bihar, India

Other terms used to mean "an area with a high density of trees" are wood, woodland, wold, weald, holt, frith and firth. Unlike forest, these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language. Some classifications now reserve the term woodland for an area with more open space between trees and distinguish among woodlands, open forests, and closed forests based on crown cover. [5]
[edit]
Distribution

Amazon Rainforest in Brazil.

Rainforest in Tasmania's Hellyer Gorge.

Forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity.

The latitudes 10° north and south of the Equator are mostly covered in tropical rainforest, and the latitudes between 53°N and 67°N have boreal forest. As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms (broadleaf forests) are more species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms (conifer, montane, or needleleaf forests), although exceptions exist.

Forests sometimes contain many tree species only within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs below ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate.

Forests are differentiated from woodlands by the extent of canopy coverage: in a forest, the branches and the foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest. A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced further apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (also see: savanna).

Among the major forested biomes are:
rain forest (tropical and temperate)
taiga
temperate hardwood forest
tropical dry forest
[edit]
Classification

Biogradska forest in Montenegro

Spiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various Adansonia (baobab) species, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetation.

Even, dense old-growth stand of beech trees (Fagus sylvatica) prepared to be regenerated by their saplings in the understory, in the Brussels part of the Sonian Forest.

Trees on a mountain in northern Utah during early autumn.

Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the "biome" in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.
Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.
Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., temperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., Temperate coniferous forests and Temperate rainforests). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests.
Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests.
Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. old growth vs. second growth).
Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the climate and the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest types (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest).

A number of global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance.[6] UNEP-WCMC's forest category classification system is a simplification of other more complex systems (e.g. UNESCO's forest and woodland 'subformations'). This system divides the world's forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the principal types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories: temperate needleleaf; temperate broadleaf and mixed; tropical moist; tropical dry; sparse trees and parkland; and forest plantations. Each category is described as a separate section below.
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Temperate needleleaf

Temperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitude regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as high altitude zones and some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils. These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta). In the Northern Hemisphere pines Pinus, spruces Picea, larches Larix, silver firs Abies, Douglas firs Pseudotsuga and hemlocks Tsuga, make up the canopy, but other taxa are also important. In the Southern Hemisphere, most coniferous trees (members of the Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae) occur in mixtures with broadleaf species that are classed as broadleaf and mixed forests.
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Temperate broadleaf and mixed

Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees in the Anthophyta. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the United States and their counterparts in China and Japan, the broadleaf evergreen rain forests of Japan, Chile and Tasmania, the sclerophyllous forests of Australia, Central Chile, the Mediterranean and California, and the southern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand.
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Tropical moist

Tropical moist forests include many different forest types. The best known and most extensive are the lowland evergreen broadleaf rainforests include, for example: the seasonally inundated várzea and igapó forests and the terra firma forests of the Amazon Basin; the peat swamp forests and moist dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia; and the high forests of the Congo Basin. The forests of tropical mountains are also included in this broad category, generally divided into upper and lower montane formations on the basis of their physiognomy, which varies with altitude. The montane forests include cloud forest, those forests at middle to high altitude, which derive a significant part of their water budget from cloud, and support a rich abundance of vascular and nonvascular epiphytes. Mangrove forests also fall within this broad category, as do most of the tropical coniferous forests of Central America.
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Tropical dry

Tropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The seasonality of rainfall is usually reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year. However, under some conditions, e.g. less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the proportion of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as "sclerophyllous". Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or spiny species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire is a recurrent phenomenon, woody savannas develop (see 'sparse trees and parkland').
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Sparse trees and parkland

Taiga forest near Saranpaul in the northeast Ural Mountains, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug — Yugra, Russia. Trees include Picea obovata (dominant on right bank), Larix sibirica, Pinus sibirica, and Betula pendula.

Sparse trees and parkland are forests with open canopies of 10-30% crown cover. They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forest or taiga, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuous closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra. It is species-poor, has high bryophyte cover, and is frequently affected by fire.
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Forest plantations

Forest plantations, generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood increase the total area of forest worldwide. Commonly mono-specific and/or composed of introduced tree species, these ecosystems are not generally important as habitat for native biodiversity. However, they can be managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and they are important providers of ecosystem services such as maintaining nutrient capital, protecting watersheds and soil structure as well as storing carbon. They may also play an important role in alleviating pressure on natural forests for timber and fuelwood production.[citation needed]
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Forest categories

A temperate deciduous broadleaf forest, the Hasenholz, southeast of Kirchheim unter Teck, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.

Redwoods in old growth forest in Muir Woods National Monument, Marin County, California.

28 forest categories are used to enable the translation of forest types from national and regional classification systems to a harmonised global one:
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Temperate and boreal forest types
Evergreen needleleaf forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is predominantly (> 75%) needleleaf and evergreen.
Deciduous needleleaf forests - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is predominantly (> 75%) needleleaf and deciduous.
Mixed broadleaf/needleleaf forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is composed of a more or less even mixture of needleleaf and broadleaf crowns (between 50:50% and 25:75%).
Broadleaf evergreen forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, the canopy being > 75% evergreen and broadleaf.
Deciduous broadleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, in which > 75% of the canopy is deciduous and broadleaves predominate (> 75% of canopy cover).
Freshwater swamp forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, composed of trees with any mixture of leaf type and seasonality, but in which the predominant environmental characteristic is a waterlogged soil.
Sclerophyllous dry forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is mainly composed of sclerophyllous broadleaves and is > 75% evergreen.
Disturbed natural forest - Any forest type above that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance by people, including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc.
Sparse trees and parkland - Natural forests in which the tree canopy cover is between 10-30%, such as in the steppe regions of the world. Trees of any type (e.g., needleleaf, broadleaf, palms).
Exotic species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species not naturally occurring in that country.
Native species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species that occur naturally in that country.
*Unspecified forest plantation - Forest plantations showing extent only with no further information about their type, This data currently only refers to the Ukraine.
*Unclassified forest data - Forest data showing forest extent only with no further information about their type.

Those marked * have been created as a result of data holdings which do not specify the forest type, hence 26 categories are quoted, not 28 shown here.[7]
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Tropical forest types

The Fatu Hiva rainforest in Polynesia.
Lowland evergreen broadleaf rain forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude that display little or no seasonality, the canopy being >75% evergreen broadleaf.
Lower montane forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, between 1200–1800 m altitude, with any seasonality regime and leaf type mixture.
Upper montane forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, above 1,800 m (5,906 ft) altitude, with any seasonality regime and leaf type mixture.
Freshwater swamp forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, composed of trees with any mixture of leaf type and seasonality, but in which the predominant environmental characteristic is a waterlogged soil.
Semi-evergreen moist broadleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude in which between 50-75% of the canopy is evergreen, > 75% are broadleaves, and the trees display seasonality of flowering and fruiting.
Mixed broadleaf/needleleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is composed of a more or less even mixture of needleleaf and broadleaf crowns (between 50:50% and 25:75%).
Needleleaf forest - Natural forest with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is predominantly (> 75%) needleleaf.
Mangroves - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, composed of species of mangrove tree, generally along coasts in or near brackish or seawater.
Disturbed natural forest - Any forest type above that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance by people, including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc.
Deciduous/semi-deciduous broadleaf forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude in which between 50-100% of the canopy is deciduous and broadleaves predominate (> 75% of canopy cover).
Sclerophyllous dry forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is mainly composed of sclerophyllous broadleaves and is > 75% evergreen.
Thorn forest - Natural forests with > 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is mainly composed of deciduous trees with thorns and succulent phanerophytes with thorns may be frequent.
Sparse trees and parkland - Natural forests in which the tree canopy cover is between 10-30%, such as in the savannah regions of the world. Trees of any type (e.g., needleleaf, broadleaf, palms).
Exotic species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species not naturally occurring in that country.
Native species plantation - Intensively managed forests with > 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species that occur naturally in that country.
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Forest loss and management

Main articles: Forestry, Logging and Deforestation

Coastal Douglas fir woodland in northwest Oregon.

Redwood tree in northern California redwood forest, where many redwood trees are managed for preservation and longevity, rather than being harvested for wood production.

The scientific study of forest species and their interaction with the environment is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests is often referred to as forestry. Forest management has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onwards culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management. Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social and economic values, often in consultation with local communities and other stakeholders.

Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation. The loss and re-growth of forest leads to a distinction between two broad types of forest, primary or old-growth forest and secondary forest. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc. In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the world's original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest.[8] More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries - the Boreal forests of Russia and Canada and the rainforest of Brazil. In 2006 this information on intact forests was updated using latest available satellite imagery.

Canada has about 4,020,000 square kilometres (1,550,000 sq mi) of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is publicly owned and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which includes extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canada’s forest is legally protected from resource development (Global Forest Watch Canada)(Natural Resources Canada). Much more forest land — about 40 percent of the total forest land base — is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas such as certified forests (Natural Resources Canada).


These maps represent only virgin forest lost. Some regrowth has occurred but not to the age, size or extent of 1620 due to population increases and food cultivation. From William B. Greeley's, The Relation of Geography to Timber Supply, Economic Geography, 1925, vol. 1, p. 1-11. Source of "Today" map: compiled by George Draffan from roadless area map in The Big Outside: A Descriptive Inventory of the Big Wilderness Areas of the United States, by Dave Foreman and Howie Wolke (Harmony Books, 1992).]]

By December 2006, over 1,237,000 square kilometers of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed (Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition). Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the 20th century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations limiting the size of clearcuts, although some older clearcuts can range upwards of 110 square kilometres (27,000 acres) in size which were cut over several years. China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the destruction caused by clearcutting. Selective cutting avoids the erosion, and flooding, that result from clearcutting.[9]

In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts. However, the United States Forest Service estimates a net loss of about 2 million hectares (4,942,000 acres) between 1997 and 2020; this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. However, in many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a lack of thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires.[10]

Old-growth forest contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat. The natural formations and processes have not been affected by humans with a frequency or intensity to change the natural structure and components of the habitat. Secondary forest contains significant elements of species which were originally from other regions or habitats.

Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as Urban forestry, sometimes within public parks. These are often created for human benefits; Attention Restoration Theory argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and kindergartens help young people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These typically need to be close to where the children live, for practical logistics.
[edit]
Gallery


Typical forest in the south east side of Norway.


A deciduous broadleaf (Beech) forest in Slovenia.


The Foloi oak forest in southewestern Greece, is a deciduous, broadleaf forest.


A forest on San Juan Island in Washington.


Ueckermünder Heide (Puszcza Wkrzańska), Germany/Poland


Maple and Oak (broadleaf, deciduous) forest in Wisconsin during winter.


A forest in Osaka, Japan.


Forest in Alsace, France.


Drawa National Park, Poland


Pinus banksiana forest


A forest in the northeast of Turkey


Piñones State Forest in Isla Verde, Puerto Rico
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See also Environment portal
Ecology portal
Earth sciences portal
Sustainable development portal

Agroforestry
Ancient Woodland, an official classification of ancient forest in the United Kingdom.
Biomass
Biomass (ecology)
Bioproduct
Biosphere
Boreal forest
Canopy
Close to nature forestry
Cloud forest
Chase (land)
Deforestation
Dendrometry
Ecological succession
Forest management
Forest migration
Forest pathology
Intact forest landscape
Jungle (terrain)
Kelp forest (A forest made mostly if not entirely of Kelp; an underwater forest)
Natural environment
Natural landscape
Old growth forest (ancient forest, virgin forest, primary forest)
Permaforestry
Primeval forest, a term often used interchangeably with old growth forest
Rainforest
Red forest
REDD-plus
Rocky Mountains
Silviculture
Subalpine forest
Taiga, a biome characterized by coniferous forests
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Temperate coniferous forests
Tree allometry
Tropical rainforest
Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Wildcrafting
Woodland management
[edit]
References
^ Lund, H. Gyde (coord.) 2006. 'Definitions of Forest, Deforestation, Afforestation, and Reforestation'. Gainesville, VA: Forest Information Services. Available from: ComcastNet-gyde.
^ Stamets, Paul (2005). Mycelium Running. Ten Speed Press. pp. 35. ISBN 1580085792.
^ a b c "forest, noun". Oxford English Dictionary online edition. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
^ "forest, noun". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (3 ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1996. ISBN 0-395-44895-6.
^ "What is a Forest?". March 28, 2007. Retrieved November 25, 2010.
^ Jenkins Martin D. , Groombridge Brian, World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth's Living Resources in the 21st Century, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, United Nations Environment Programme, retrieved 20 March 2007 [1].
^ United Nations Environment Programme, World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Background to Forest Mapping & Data Harmonisation, retrieved 20 March 2007 [2]
^ World Resources Institute, 1997. The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge
^ Ban on Logging Saves Forests
^ Wildfires Ignite Forest Management Debate
[edit]
Further reading
2006-01-13, Sciencedaily: Deep-rooted Plants Have Much Greater Impact On Climate Than Experts Thought Citat: "...The tap roots transfer rainwater from the surface to reservoirs deep underground and redistribute water...increases photosynthesis and the evaporation of water...by 40% in the dry season...During the wet season, these plants can store as much as 10% of the annual precipitation as deep as 13 metres (43 ft) underground, to be tapped during the dry months...tree roots acting like pipes to allow water to shift around much faster than it could otherwise percolate through the soil..."
Hédl, M. Svátek, M. Dancak, Rodzay A.W., M. Salleh A.B., Kamariah A.S. A new technique for inventory of permanent plots in tropical forests: a case study from lowland dipterocarp forest in Kuala Belalong, Brunei Darussalam, In Blumea 54, 2009, p 124–130. Publié 30. 10. 2009.
[edit]
External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Forest

Forests in danger
Roadmap to Recovery: The World's Last Intact Forest Landscapes
Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 by the FAO
CoolForests.org - Conservation Cools the Planet
Google - public data "Forest area (sq. km)"
Luck Baker, Andrew (18 November 2008). "The first forests - Discovery 2008". BBC Online.
"The World's 10 Most Threatened Forest Hotspots". Conservation International. 2 February 2011.

Categories: Forests | Habitats | Trees | Ecosystems
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Understory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Look up understory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.


Lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) woodland understory in early spring.

Tree base showing moss understory limit.

Understory (or understorey) is the term for the area of a forest which grows at the lowest height level below the forest canopy. Plants in the understory consist of a mixture of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees together with understory shrubs and herbs. Young canopy trees often persist as suppressed juveniles for decades while they wait for an opening in the forest overstory which will enable their growth into the canopy. On the other hand, understory shrubs are able to complete their life cycle in the shade of the forest canopy. Also some small trees such as dogwood and holly rarely grow tall and are generally understory trees.

Forest understories have lower light intensities than at the canopy top. The wavelengths of light that are available are only a subset of those that are available in full sunlight. Understory plants must thus often be shade tolerant—they must be able to photosynthesize successfully with the limited amount of light that is available. They are often able to use wavelengths not available to canopy trees. In temperate deciduous forests understory seedlings "leaf out" before the canopy trees do. This is important because it allows the understory plants a window in which to photosynthesize without the canopy present. This brief period (usually 1–2 weeks) is often a crucial period which allows the plant to maintain a net positive carbon balance over the course of the year.

Forest understories also have higher humidity than exposed areas. The forest canopy reduces solar radiation, so the ground does not heat up as rapidly. Consequently, the understory dries out more slowly than the more exposed areas do. The greater humidity allows fungi and other decomposers to flourish. This drives nutrient cycling, and provides favorable microclimates for many animals and plants.
[edit]
See also
Overgrazing
Layers of rainforests
[edit]
References This article does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008)
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Categories: Forest ecology | Forests | Plants | Plants by habitat | Habitat (ecology) terminology | Biology terminology | Forestry stubs
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