Treaty of Lubowla
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The Spiš (Zips) region. Light blue and green areas show the pawned territories, red line shows current borders, yellow former border between then Hungary and Poland and the black borders between counties

Treaty of Lubowla of 1412 was a treaty between Władysław II, King of Poland, and Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary. Negotiated in the town of Stará Ľubovňa in modern Slovakia, it was confirmed later that year in Buda.

The treaty was negotiated by Stibor of Stiboricz and Zawisza Czarny, two of the most famous Polish knights of the late Middle Ages. The Hungarian state was experiencing large financial problems due to constant wars with the Ottoman Empire, as well as pressure from the Habsburg family. The provisions of the treaty included confirmation of the First Peace of Thorn between Poland and the Teutonic Knights. At the same time, Hungary offered to secretly support the Polish rights to the province of Pomerelia, lost to the Teutonic Order. Finally, in exchange for a loan of sixty times the amount of 37,000 Prague groschen, that is approximately seven tonnes of pure silver, the Hungarian crown pawned 16 rich salt-producing towns in the area of Spisz (Zips), as well as a right to incorporate them into Poland until the debt is repaid.

After the meeting in Altlublau (Stará Ľubovňa), the Polish delegation with King Władysław Jagiełło proceeded to Košice, where they were met by the Hungarian king. Then they proceeded to Tokaj, Debrecen, and finally to the tomb of Saint Ladislaus in Nagyvárad. From there they proceeded to Buda, where the treaty was officially signed in presence of King Tvrtko II of Bosnia, fourteen dukes and princes, three archbishops, eleven bishops and ambassadors of seventeen states, including the Tartar Horde and the Ottoman Empire, as well as roughly 40,000 nobles and knights. To commemorate the event, a tournament was organized, in which both Polish and Hungarian knights took part. Among them were Zawisza Czarny, his brother Firlej, Scibor Jedrzny of Ostoja, Dobko of Oleśnica and Powała of Taczew.

The treaty was never broken yet the debt was not repaid and the area of Spisz remained a part of Poland until the Partitions of Poland in late 18th century, when in 1769, during the Bar Confederation, Austrian forced of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor acting under the pretext of securing the region from war took control of the towns. It never returned to Poland; instead, Polish weakness encouraged Austria to take part in the First partition of Poland.
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id War II.

b ^ Sources vary with regards to what was the largest resistance movement during World War II. The confusion often stems from the fact that as war progressed, some resistance movements grew larger - and other diminished. Polish territories were mostly freed from Nazi German control in the years 1944-1945, eliminating the need for their respective (anti-Nazi) partisan forces (in Poland (although the cursed soldiers continued to fight against the Soviets). Several sources note that Polish Armia Krajowa was the largest resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe. For example, Norman Davies wrote "Armia Krajowa (Home Army), the AK, which could fairly claim to be the largest of European resistance";[134] Gregor Dallas wrote "Home Army (Armia Krajowa or AK) in late 1943 numbered around 400000, making it the largest resistance organization in Europe";[135] Mark Wyman wrote "Armia Krajowa was considered the largest underground resistance unit in wartime Europe".[136] Certainly, Polish resistance was the largest resistance till German invasion of Yugoslavia and invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. After that point, the numbers of Soviet partisans and Yugoslav partisans begun growing rapidly. The numbers of Soviet partisans quickly caught up and were very similar to that of the Polish resistance.[137][138] The numbers of Tito's Yugoslav partisans were roughly similar to those of the Polish and Soviet partisans in the first years of the war (1941–1942), but grew rapidly in the latter years, outnumbering the Polish and Soviet partisans by 2:1 or more (estimates give Yugoslavian forces about 800,000 in 1945, to Polish and Soviet forces of 400,000 in 1944).[138][139]
See also Poland portal
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Main article: Outline of Poland
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Golden Liberty
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Republic at the Zenith of Its Power. Golden Liberty. The Royal Election of 1573, by Jan Matejko

Golden Liberty (Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność, Lithuanian: Auksinė laisvė), sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy or Nobles' Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka or Złota wolność szlachecka, Latin: áurea libertas) refers to a unique aristocratic political system in the Kingdom of Poland and later, after the Union of Lublin (1569), in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Under that system, all nobles (szlachta) who held immediate estates were equal and enjoyed extensive rights and privileges. The nobility controlled the legislature (Sejm — the Polish Parliament) and the Commonwealth's elected king.Contents [hide]
1 Development
2 Assessment
3 Similar systems elsewhere
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

[edit]
Development

This political system, unusual for its time, stemmed from the consolidation of power by the szlachta (noble class) over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505, King Henry's Articles of 1573 and later through various Pacta conventa ― see Szlachta history and political privileges) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power.

The political doctrine of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was: our state is a republic under the presidency of the King. Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said that "Rex regnat et non gubernat" ("The King reigns but does not govern")[citation needed]. The Commonwealth had a parliament, the Sejm, as well as a Senat and an elected king. The king was obliged to respect citizens' rights specified in King Henry's Articles as well as in pacta conventa negotiated at the time of his election.

The monarch's power was limited, in favor of the sizable noble class. Each new king had to subscribe to King Henry's Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included almost unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, King Henry's Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-elect. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and was constantly supervised by a group of senators.

The foundation of the Commonwealth's political system, the "Golden Liberty" (Polish: Złota Wolność, a term used from 1573), included:
free election of the king by all nobles wishing to participate;
Sejm, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years;
pacta conventa (Latin), "agreed-to agreements" negotiated with the king-elect, including a bill of rights, binding on the king, derived from the earlier King Henry's Articles;
rokosz (insurrection), the right of szlachta to form a legal rebellion against a king who violated their guaranteed freedoms;
liberum veto (Latin), the right of an individual land envoy to oppose a decision by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the liberum veto in provincial sejmiks;
konfederacja (from the Latin confederatio), the right to form an organization to force through a common political aim.

The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:
confederation and federation, with regard to the broad autonomy of its regions. It is however difficult to decisively call the Commonwealth either confederation or federation, as it had some qualities of both of them;
oligarchy,[1] as only the szlachta—around 10% of the population—had political rights;
democracy, since all the szlachta were equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 10% of Commonwealth population who enjoyed those political rights (the szlachta) was a substantially larger percentage than in any other European country; note that in 1831 in France only about 1% of the population had the right to vote, and in 1832 in the United Kingdom, only about 14% of Male adults;
elective monarchy, since the monarch, elected by the szlachta, was Head of State;
constitutional monarchy, since the monarch was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal.
[edit]
Assessment

The "Golden Liberty" was a unique and controversial feature of Poland's political system. It was an exception, characterized by a strong aristocracy and a feeble king, in an age when absolutism was developing in the principal countries of Europe ― an exception, however, characterized by a striking similarity to certain modern values.[2] At a time when most European countries were headed toward centralization, absolute monarchy and religious and dynastic warfare, the Commonwealth experimented with decentralization,[1] confederation and federation, democracy, religious tolerance and even pacifism. Since the Sejm usually vetoed a monarch's plans for war, this constitutes a notable argument for the democratic peace theory.[3] This system was a precursor of the modern concepts of broader democracy[4] and constitutional monarchy[5][6][7] as well as federation.[1] The szlachta citizens of the Commonwealth praised the right of resistance, the social contract, the liberty of the individual, the principle of government by consent, the value of self-reliance ― all widespread concepts found in the modern, liberal democracies.[2] Just as liberal democrats of the 19th and 20th century, the Polish nobleman were concerned about the power of the state.[8] The Polish nobleman were strongly opposed to the very concept of the authoritarian state.[9]

Perhaps the closest parallels to Poland's 'Noble Democracy' can be found outside Europe altogether ― in America ― among the slave-owning aristocracy of The South, where slave-owning democrats and founding fathers of the USA such as Thomas Jefferson or George Washington had many values in common with the reformist nobleman of the Commonwealth.[10] It is no coincidence that in 1791 the Commonwealth adopted the world's second-oldest codified national constitution in modern history.[11]

Others however criticize the Golden Liberty, pointing out it was limited only to the nobility, excluding peasants or townsfolk[12] and gave no legal system to grant freedom and liberty to the majority of the population, failing them by failing to protect them from the excesses of the nobility, resulting in the slow development of cities and the second serfdom among the peasants.[13] The Commonwealth was called Noble's Paradise, sometimes ― the Jewish Paradise, but also Purgatory for the Townsfolk (Burghers) and Hell for the Peasants.[14] And even among the nobility (szlachta), the Golden Liberty became abused and twisted by the most powerful of them (magnates).[12][15] However, one should note that this “the Jewish Paradise, but also Purgatory for the Townsfolk and Hell for the Peasants” was first said by a 20th century Jewish-German novelist Alfred Döblin, not by the people of that time, and it should be evaluated whether this really reflects the fact of the age. In fact it is also true that a number of Russian peasants fled from their brutal lords to settle in liberal Poland[16], which is a typical example of counterevidence to the "Hell for the Peasants" claim.

In its extreme the Golden Liberty has been criticized as being responsible for "civil wars and invasions, national weakness, irresolution, and poverty of spirit". [17] Failing to evolve into the "modern" system of a absolutist and national monarchy, the Commonwealth suffered a gradual decline down to the brink of anarchy, through liberum veto[15] and other abuses of the system. With majority of szlachta, believing that they live in the perfect state, too few questioned the Golden Liberty and the Sarmatism philosophy, until it was too late.[18] With szlachta refusing to pay taxes for a larger and modern army, and magnates bribed by foreign powers paralyzing the Commonwealth political system,[19][20] the Commonwealth was unable to keep up with its increasingly militarized and efficient (through bureaucratization) neighbors,[21] becoming a tempting target for foreign aggression. It was eventually partitioned and annexed by stronger absolutist neighboring countries in the late-18th-century partitions of Poland.[7][22]
[edit]
Similar systems elsewhere

Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice.[23] (interestingly both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic."[24])

A similar fate was averted by Italy; first due to a secular inability of the kings of France and Spain, and the Papacy, to come to terms on how to divide the country, then through the reaction against Habsburg domination which, as late as 1861, finally aligned most of the country's states in support of a national monarchy under king Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy, hitherto king of Sardinia.

Notably, neither Republic of Venice nor Italy had "Liberum Veto" in their institutions.
[edit]
See also
Executionist movement
History of democracy
[edit]
References
^ a b c Aleksander Gella, Development of Class Structure in Eastern Europe: Poland and Her Southern Neighbors, SUNY Press, 1998, ISBN 0-88706-833-2, Google Print, p13
^ a b Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199253390, p.262
^ Frost, Robert I.. The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in northeastern Europe, 1558–1721. Harlow, England; New York: Longman's. 2000. Especially pp9–11, 114, 181, 323.
^ Maciej Janowski, Polish Liberal Thought, Central European University Press, 2001, ISBN 963-9241-18-0, Google Print: p3, p12
^ Paul W. Schroeder, The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-820654-2, Google print p84
^ Rett R. Ludwikowski, Constitution-Making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance, Duke University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8223-1802-4, Google Print, p34
^ a b George Sanford, Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989, Palgrave, 2002, ISBN 0-333-77475-2, Google print p. 11 — constitutional monarchy, p.3 — anarchy
^ Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199253390, Google Print, p.283
^ Jerzy Szacki, Liberalism After Communism, Central European University, 1995, ISBN 1858660165, Press Google Print, p. 46
^ Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199253390, p.282
^ John Markoff describes the advent of modern codified national constitutions and states that "The first European country to follow the U.S. example was Poland in 1791." John Markoff, Waves of Democracy, 1996, ISBN 0-8039-9019-7, Google Print, p.121
^ a b Helmut Georg Koenigsberger, Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0521803306, Google Print, p.336
^ The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis, discussion and full online text of Evsey Domar (1970) "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis," Economic History Review 30:1 (March), pp18–32
^ Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199253390, Google Print, p.160
^ a b Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 052185332X, Google Print, p.88
^ Nicholas Valentine Riasanovsky (2000). A History of Russia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195121791. Googleブック
^ Philip Pajakowski, in Michał Bobrzyński (1849-1935), Peter Brock, John D. Stanley, Piotr Wróbel (ed.), Nation And History: Polish Historians from the Enlightenment to the Second World War, University of Toronto Press, 2006, ISBN 0802090362, Google Print, p.150
^ Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199253390, p.279]
^ William Bullitt, The Great Globe Itself: A Preface to World Affairs, Transaction Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1-4128-0490-6, Google Print, pp42–43
^ John Adams, The Political Writings of John Adams, Regnery Gateway, 2001, ISBN 0-89526-292-4, Google Print, p.242
^ Brian M. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe, Princeton University Press, 1992, ISBN 0691024758, Google Print, p.144
^ Martin Van Gelderen, Quentin Skinner, Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-521-80756-5 Google Print: p54
^ Joanna Olkiewicz, Najaśniejsza Republika Wenecka (Most Serene Republic of Venice), Książka i Wiedza, 1972, Warszawa
^ Joseph Conrad, Notes on Life and Letters: Notes on Life and Letters, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-56163-9, Google Print, p422 (notes)
[edit]
External links
Golden Freedom ― 1632―1648
Excerpts from the book "The Polish Way" by Adam Zamojski
MONARCHY BECOMES THE FIRST REPUBLIC: KINGS ELECTED FOR LIFE
The Inexorable Political Rise of the szlachta
Categories: Government | History of Poland (1569–1795) | History of Belarus (1569–1795) | Legal history of Belarus | Legal history of Lithuania | Legal history of Poland | Political history of Poland
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Aristocracy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the social class, see Aristocracy (class).
For other uses, see Aristocrat (disambiguation).This article is part of the
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Aristocracy (Greek ἀριστοκρατία aristokratía, from ἄριστος aristos "excellent," and κράτος kratos "power"), is a form of government in which a few of the most famous citizens rule. The term was derived from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best".[1] See Aristocracy (class) for the historical roots of the term.Contents [hide]
1 Concept
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References

[edit]
Concept

The concept evolved in Ancient Greece, whereby a council of famous citizens was commonly used and contrasted with "direct monarchy" in which an individual king held the power. The Ancient Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, aristocracy was upheld.[2]

In Rome, The Republic consisted of an aristocracy as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. The Republic ended with the death of Julius Caesar on March 15, 44 BC. Later, aristocracies primarily consisted of an elite aristocratic class, privileged by birth and often wealth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, in which all citizens hold some form of political power. However this distinction is oversimplified.

In Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the people is an assembly by part. Simply put, a government when only a certain part of the general public can represent the public.
[edit]
See also
Gentry
Nobility
Old Money
[edit]
Notes
^ The Oxford Companion to British History, John Cannon (Editor), Oxford University Press, 1962, ISBN 9780198661764
^ "Craic". Oxford English Dictionary. December 1989. Retrieved December 22, 2009.
[edit]
References
History, John Cannon (Editor), Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 9780198661764
Categories: Forms of government | Social sciences | Social groups | Social classes | Oligarchy | Government in Greek Antiquity
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Aristocracy (class)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (June 2009)


The aristocracy are people considered to be in the highest social class in a society which have or once had a political system of Aristocracy. Aristocrats possess hereditary titles granted by a monarch, which once granted them feudal or legal privileges, or deriving, as in Ancient Greece and India, from a military caste.[1] They are usually below only the monarch of a country in the social hierarchy. The term "aristocracy" is derived from the Greek language aristokratia, meaning 'the rule of the best'.[2]Contents [hide]
1 Origins of the notion
2 Europe
3 USA
4 India
4.1 Indian allochtonous titles
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

[edit]
Origins of the notion

The term "aristocracy" (ἀριστοκρατία) was first given in Athens to young citizens (the men of the ruling class) who led armies from the front line. Because military bravery was highly regarded as a virtue in ancient Greece, it was assumed that the armies were being led by "the best". From the ancient Greeks, the term passed on to the European Middle Ages for a similar hereditary class of military leaders often referred to as the "nobility". As in ancient Greece, this was a class of privileged men whose military role allowed them to present themselves as the most "noble," or "best."
[edit]
Europe This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)


The French Revolution attacked aristocrats as people who had achieved their status by birth rather than by merit, and this was considered unjust. In the United Kingdom and other European countries, such as Spain and Denmark, in which hereditary titles are still recognised, "aristocrat" still refers to the descendant of one of approximately 7,000 families with hereditary titles, usually still in possession of considerable wealth, though not necessarily so.
[edit]
USA This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)


In the United States and other nations without a history of a hereditary military caste, aristocracy has taken on a more stylized, as opposed to literal, meaning, referring to the ruling class in general, and especially old money. It also can be used to refer to those, like the Roosevelts, Du Pont family, and Vanderbilts, whose families came to the United States early in its history, acquired large holdings and have been able to maintain their wealth through several generations. The term "Southern aristocracy" refers to families who acquired large land holdings in the American South before the American Civil War and remain wealthy landowners to this day, or to families that lost their wealth in the 19th century but continue to insist on social deference.
[edit]
India This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)


In ancient India, starting in the Vedic period, the Kshatriyas formed the military aristocracy. Although the Brahmins - priests and interpretors of religious texts - were theoretically the highest caste, the power and prestige rested with the ruling Kshatriya castex.

Nowadays, aristocratic titles like Singh, Rajput, Thakur, Nair, Madampi, Ali and Varma,Verma are still used in India.
[edit]
Indian allochtonous titles This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010)


Under the rule of the Mughal Empire the titles for those under a king were borrowed from Persia. Most Indian Princely families and a large part of the subcontinent's jagirdars, thikanadars and talukdars were from the kshatriya caste but often there were not as was the case for the rulers of the Deccan. (Some call these the Nobility of the Sword).

Many landholding families either held legal or administrative offices, were sometimes considered to be the Indian version of the Nobility of the Robe. The princes appointed officers, such as dewan and other state level ministers, to run their administrations, who were considered to be members of the regional nobility. Most of these officers were either relatives of the Princes who appointed them, or were themselves substantial landlords under the sovereignty of the Princely States, and mostly held hereditary offices. Sometimes educated men belonging to the British Imperial Services were also appointed to the high offices of the Princely States, but their positions were not hereditary and they were seen as career bureaucrats rather than noblemen by their employer's.
[edit]
See also
Nobility
Peerage (United Kingdom)
Titles
Titles (honorary)
Titles (hereditary)
Titles (false)
Honorifics
Styles
Styles (royal and noble)
Royal and noble ranks
Styles (United Kingdom)
Monarchy
[edit]
References
^ The aristocrats: a portrait of Britain's nobility and their way of life today, by Roy Perrott, (London 1968), page5-10
^ The Oxford Companion to British History, John Cannon (Editor), Oxford University Press, 1997, ISBN 9780198661764
[edit]
External links
Fake Titles
Heraldica: European Noble, Princely, Royal, and Imperial Titles Look up aristocracy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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