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Early Modern English
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Early Modern English
English
Spoken in England, southern Scotland, Ireland, Wales and British colonies
Language extinction developed into Modern English
Language family Indo-European
Germanic
West Germanic
Anglo-Frisian
Early Modern English
Language codes
ISO 639-1 None
ISO 639-2 –
ISO 639-3 –
Linguasphere –
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.
Early Modern English (often abbreviated EModE[1]) is the stage of the English language used from about the end of the Middle English period (the latter half of the 15th century) to 1650. Thus, the first edition of the King James Bible and the works of William Shakespeare both belong to the late phase of Early Modern English. Prior to and following the accession of James I to the English throne the emerging English standard began to influence the spoken and written Middle Scots of Scotland.
Current readers of English are generally able to understand Early Modern English, though occasionally with difficulties arising from grammar changes, changes in the meanings of some words, and spelling differences. The standardisation of English spelling falls within the Early Modern English period and is influenced by conventions predating the Great Vowel Shift, which is the reason for much of the non-phonetic spelling of contemporary Modern English.Contents [hide]
1 Pronouns
2 Orthographic conventions
3 Verbs
3.1 Marking tense and number
3.2 Modal auxiliaries
3.3 Perfect and progressive forms
4 Vocabulary
5 Development from Middle English
6 Timeline
7 Development to Modern English
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit]
Pronouns
The King James Version of the Holy Bible intentionally preserved in Early Modern English archaic pronouns and verb endings that had already begun to fall out of spoken use. This allowed the English translation to convey the distinction between the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular and plural verb forms of the original Hebrew and Greek sources.
In Early Modern English, there were two second-person personal pronouns: thou, the informal singular pronoun, and ye, which was both the plural pronoun and the formal singular pronoun. (This usage is analogous to the modern French tu and vous and modern southern German du and Ihr). Thou was already falling out of use in the Early Modern English period, but remained customary for addressing God and certain other solemn occasions, and sometimes for addressing inferiors.
Like other personal pronouns, thou and ye had different forms depending on their grammatical case; specifically, the objective form of thou was thee, its possessive forms were thy and thine, and its reflexive or emphatic form was thyself; while the objective form of ye was you, its possessive forms were your and yours, and its reflexive or emphatic forms were yourself and yourselves.
In other respects, the pronouns were much the same as today. One difference is that my and thy became mine and thine before words beginning with a vowel or the letter h (or, more accurately, the older forms "mine" and "thine" had become "my" and "thy" before words beginning with a consonant other than "h," while "mine" and "thine" were retained before words beginning with a vowel or "h"); thus, mine eyes, thine hand, and so on.
Personal pronouns in Early Modern English Nominative Objective Genitive Possessive
1st Person singular I me my / mine[# 1] mine
plural we us our ours
2nd Person singular informal thou thee thy / thine[# 1] thine
plural or formal singular ye you your yours
3rd Person singular he / she / it him / her / it his / her / his (it)[# 2] his / hers / his[# 2]
plural they them their theirs
^ a b The possessive forms were used as genitives before words beginning with a vowel sound and letter h (e.g. thine eyes, mine heire). Otherwise, "my" and "thy" is attributive (my/thy goods) and "mine" and "thine" are predicative (they are mine/thine). Shakespeare pokes fun at this custom with an archaic plural for eyes when the character Bottom says "mine eyen" in A Midsummer Night's Dream.
^ a b From the early Early Modern English period up until the 17th century, his was the possessive of the third person neuter it as well as of the 3rd person masculine he. Genitive "it" appears once in the 1611 King James Bible (Leviticus 25:5) as groweth of it owne accord.
[edit]
Orthographic conventions
Shakespeare's writings are universally associated with Early Modern English
The orthography of Early Modern English was fairly similar to that of today, but spelling was unphonetic and unstable. For example, the word acuity could be spelled either
The letter had two distinct lowercase forms: (short s) as used today, and <ſ> (long s). The short s was used at the end of a word, and the long s everywhere else, except that the double lowercase S was variously written <ſſ> or <ſs>.[2] This is similar to the alternation between medial (σ) and final lower case sigma (ς) in Greek.
and
and
The letter <Þ> (thorn (letter)) was still in use during the Early Modern English period, though increasingly limited to hand-written texts. In print, <Þ> was often represented by
A silent
The sound /ʌ/ was often written
Nothing was standard, however. For example, "Julius Caesar" could be spelled "Julius Cæſar", "Ivlivs Cæſar", "Jvlivs Cæſar", or "Iulius Cæſar" and the word "he" could be spelled "he" or "hee" in the same sentence, as it is found in Shakespeare's plays.
[edit]
Verbs
[edit]
Marking tense and number
During the Early Modern period, English verb inflections became simplified as they evolved towards their modern forms:
The third person singular present lost its alternate inflections; '-(e)th' became obsolete while -s survived. (The alternate forms' coexistence can be seen in Shakespeare's phrase, "With her, that hateth thee and hates vs all").[6]
The plural present form became uninflected. Present plurals had been marked with -en, -th, or -s (-th and -s survived the longest, especially with the plural use of is, hath, and doth).[7] Marked present plurals were rare throughout the Early Modern period, though, and -en was probably only used as a stylistic affectation to indicate rural or old-fashioned speech.[8]
The second person singular was marked in both the present and past tenses with -st or -est (for example, in the past tense, walkedst or gav'st).[9] Since the indicative past was not (and is not) otherwise marked for person or number[10], the loss of thou made the past subjunctive indistinguishable from the indicative past for all verbs except to be.
[edit]
Modal auxiliaries
The modal auxiliaries cemented their distinctive syntactical characteristics during the Early Modern period. Thus, modals' use without an infinitive became rare (as in "I must to Coventry"; "I'll none of that"). Use of modals' present participles to indicate aspect (from 1556: "Maeyinge suffer no more the loue & deathe of Aurelio"), and of their preterite forms to indicate tense ("He follow'd Horace so very close, that of necessity he must fall with him") also became uncommon.[11]
Some verbs ceased to function as modals during the Early Modern period. The present form of must, mot, became obsolete. Dare also lost the syntactical characteristics of a modal auxiliary, evolving a new past form (dared) distinct from the modal durst.[12]
[edit]
Perfect and progressive forms
The perfect of the verbs had not yet been standardized to use uniformly the auxiliary verb "to have". Some took as their auxiliary verb "to be", as in this example from the King James Bible, "But which of you ... will say unto him ... when he is come from the field, Go and sit down..." [Luke XVII:7]. The rules that determined which verbs took which auxiliaries were similar to those still observed in German and French (see unaccusative verb).
The modern syntax used for the progressive aspect ("I am walking") became dominant by the end of the Early Modern period, but other forms were also common. These included the prefix a- ("I am a-walking") and the infinitive paired with "do" ("I do walk"). Moreover, the to be + -ing verb form could be used to express a passive meaning without any additional markers: "The house is building" could mean "The house is being built."[13]
[edit]
Vocabulary
Although the language is otherwise very similar to that current, there have in time developed a few "false friends" within the English language itself, rendering difficulty in understanding even the still-prestigious phrasing of the King James Bible. An example is the passage, "Suffer the little children"; meaning, "Permit ..." (this usage of the word "suffer" is still found in some dialects in formal circumstances; it is also the source of the words "sufferance" and "suffrage").
[edit]
Development from Middle English
See also: Middle English and Gender in English#Historical development
The change from Middle English to Early Modern English was not just a matter of vocabulary or pronunciation changing: it was the beginning of a new era in the history of English.
An era of linguistic change in a language with large variations in dialect was replaced by a new era of a more standardized language with a richer lexicon and an established (and lasting) literature. Shakespeare's plays are familiar and comprehensible today, 400 years after they were written,[14] but the works of Geoffrey Chaucer and William Langland, written only 200 years earlier, are considerably more difficult for the average reader.
[edit]
Timeline
1476 – William Caxton starts printing in Westminster, however, the language he uses reflects the variety of styles and dialects used by the authors whose work he prints.
1485 – Tudor dynasty established; start of period of (relative) political and social stability. Caxton publishes Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, the first print bestseller in English. Malory's language, while archaic in some respects, is clearly Early Modern, possibly a Yorkshire or Midlands dialect.
1491 or 1492 – Richard Pynson starts printing in London; his style tends to prefer Chancery Standard, the form of English used by government.
c. 1509 – Pynson becomes the king's official printer.
From 1525 – Publication of William Tyndale's Bible translation (which was initially banned).
1539 – Publication of the Great Bible, the first officially authorised Bible in English, edited by Myles Coverdale, largely from the work of Tyndale. This Bible is read to congregations regularly in churches, familiarising much of the population of England with a standard form of the language.
1549 – Publication of the first Book of Common Prayer in English, under the supervision of Thomas Cranmer. This book standardises much of the wording of church services. Some have argued that, since attendance at prayer book services was required by law for many years, the repetitive use of the language of the prayer book helped to standardize modern English.[15]
1557 – Publication of Tottel's Miscellany.
c. 1590 to c. 1612 – William Shakespeare's plays written; they are still widely read and familiar in the 21st century.
1607 - The first successful permanent English colony in the New World, Jamestown, is established in Virginia. The beginnings of American English.
1611 – The King James Bible is published, largely based on Tyndale's translation. It remains the standard Bible in the Church of England for many years.
c. 1640–1660 – Period of social upheaval in England (the English Civil War and the era of Oliver Cromwell).
1651 – Publication of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes.
1662 – New edition of the Book of Common Prayer, largely based on the 1549 and subsequent editions. This also long remains a standard work in English.
1667 – Publication of Paradise Lost, by John Milton.
[edit]
Development to Modern English
See also: English language
The 17th century was a time of political and social upheaval in England, particularly the period from about 1640 to 1660. The increase in trade around the world meant that the English port towns (and their forms of speech) would have gained in influence over the old county towns. England experienced a new period of internal peace and relative stability, encouraging the arts including literature, from around the 1690s onwards. Another important episode in the development of the English language started around 1607: the English settlement of America. By 1750 a distinct American dialect of English had developed.
There are still elements of Early Modern English in some dialects. For example, thee and thou can still be heard in the Black Country, some parts of Yorkshire and Dawley, Telford. The pronunciation of book, cook, look, etc. with a long [uː] can be heard in some areas of the North and the West Country. However, these are becoming less frequent with each generation[citation needed].
[edit]
See also
Early Modern Britain
Early Modern English literature
History of the English language
Inkhorn debate
Elizabethan era
Jacobean era
Caroline era
English Renaissance
Shakespeare's influence
Middle English
Modern English
[edit]
References
^ Río-Rey, Carmen (2002-10-09). "Subject control and coreference in Early Modern English free adjuncts and absolutes". English Language and Linguistics (Cambridge University Press) 6 (2): 309–323. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
^ Burroughs, Jeremiah; Greenhill, William (1660). The Saints Happinesse. Introduction uses both happineſs and bleſſedneſs.
^ Sacks, David (2004). The Alphabet. London: Arrow. p. 316. ISBN 0-09-943682-5.
^ Sacks, David (2003). Language Visible. Canada: Knopf. pp. 356–57. ISBN 0-676-97487-2.
^ W.W. Skeat, in Principles of English Etymology, claims that the o-for-u substitution was encouraged by the ambiguity between u and n; if sunne could just as easily be misread as sunue or suvne, it made sense to write it as sonne. (Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, Second Series. Clarendon Press, 1891. Page 99.)
^ Lass, Roger, ed (1999). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-521-26476-1.
^ Lass, Roger, ed (1999). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge. pp. 165–66. ISBN 978-0-521-26476-1.
^ Charles Laurence Barber (1997). Early Modern English. Edinburgh University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-07486-0835-5.
^ Charles Laurence Barber (1997). Early Modern English. Edinburgh University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-07486-0835-5.
^ Charles Laurence Barber (1997). Early Modern English. Edinburgh University Press. p. 172. ISBN 978-07486-0835-5.
^ Lass, Roger, ed (1999). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge. pp. 231–35. ISBN 978-0-521-26476-1.
^ Lass, Roger, ed (1999). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-521-26476-1.
^ Lass, Roger, ed (1999). The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge. pp. 217–18. ISBN 978-0-521-26476-1.
^ Cercignani, Fausto, Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1981.
^ Stephen L. White, "The Book of Common Prayer and the Standardization of the English Language" The Anglican, 32:2(4-11), April, 2003
[edit]
External links
English Paleography Examples for the study of English handwriting from the 16th-18th centuries from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University[show]
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History of the English language
Categories: Early Modern English | History of the English language | Early Modern languages
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Great Vowel Shift
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011)
The Great Vowel Shift was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that took place in Southern England between 1450 and 1750.[1] The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist and Anglicist, who coined the term.[2]Contents [hide]
1 Effect
1.1 Exceptions
2 History
3 Other languages
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
[edit]
EffectThis article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.
The values of the long vowels form the main difference between the pronunciation of Middle English and Modern English, and the Great Vowel Shift is one of the historical events marking the separation of Middle and Modern English. Previous to the Great Vowel Shift, these vowels had "continental" values much like those remaining in Italian and liturgical Latin. However, during the Great Vowel Shift, the two highest long vowels became diphthongs, and the other five underwent an increase in tongue height with one of them coming to the front.
The principal changes (with the vowels shown in IPA) are roughly as follows.[3] However, exceptions occur, the transitions were not always complete, and there were sometimes accompanying changes in orthography:
Middle English [aː] (ā) fronted to [æː] and then raised to [ɛː], [eː] and in many dialects diphthongised in Modern English to [eɪ] (as in make). Since Old English ā had mutated to [ɔː] in Middle English, Old English ā does not correspond to the Modern English diphthong [eɪ].
Middle English [ɛː] raised to [eː] and then to modern English [iː] (as in beak).
Middle English [eː] raised to Modern English [iː] (as in feet).
Middle English [iː] diphthongised to [ɪi], which was most likely followed by [əɪ] and finally Modern English [aɪ] (as in mice).
Middle English [ɔː] raised to [oː], and in the eighteenth century this became Modern English [oʊ] or [əʊ] (as in boat).
Middle English [oː] raised to Modern English [uː] (as in boot).
Middle English [uː] was diphthongised in most environments to [ʊu], and this was followed by [əʊ], and then Modern English [aʊ] (as in mouse) in the eighteenth century. Before labial consonants, this shift did not occur, and [uː] remains as in soup).
This means that the vowel in the English word date was in Middle English pronounced [aː] (similar to modern dart); the vowel in feet was [eː] (similar to modern fate); the vowel in wipe was [iː] (similar to modern weep); the vowel in boot was [oː] (similar to modern boat); and the vowel in house was [uː] (similar to modern whose).
The effects of the shift were not entirely uniform, and differences in degree of vowel shifting can sometimes be detected in regional dialects both in written and in spoken English. In Northern English, the long back vowels remained unaffected, the long front vowels having undergone an earlier shift.[4] In Scotland, Scots differed in its input to the Great Vowel Shift, the long vowels [iː], [eː] and [aː] shifted to [ei], [iː] and [eː] by the Middle Scots period, [oː] had shifted to [øː] in Early Scots and [uː] remained unaffected.[5]
[edit]
Exceptions
Not all words underwent certain phases of the Great Vowel Shift. ea in particular did not take the step to [iː] in several words, such as great, break, steak, greaves, swear, and bear. Other examples are father, which failed to become [ɛː] / ea, and broad, which failed to become [oː] (except when used as a proper noun, as in "Eli Broad").
Shortening of long vowels at various stages produced further complications. ea is again a good example, shortening commonly before coronal consonants such as d and th, thus: dead, head, threat, wealth etc. (This is known as the bred-bread merger.) oo was shortened from [uː] to [ʊ] in many cases before k, d and less commonly t, thus book, foot, good etc. Some cases occurred before the change of [ʊ] to [ʌ]: blood, flood. Similar, yet older shortening occurred for some instances of ou: country, could.
Note that some loanwords, such as soufflé and Umlaut, have retained a spelling from their origin language that may seem similar to the previous examples; but, since they were not a part of English at the time of the Great Vowel Shift, they are not actually exceptions to the shift.
[edit]
History This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)
The exact causes of the shift are continuing mysteries in linguistics and cultural history. But some theories attach the cause to the mass migration to the southeast part of England after the Black Death, where the difference in accents led to certain groups modifying their speech to allow for a standard pronunciation of vowel sounds. The different dialects and the rise of a standardised middle class in London led to changes in pronunciation, which continued to spread out from that city.
The sudden social mobility after the Black Death may have caused the shift, with people from lower levels in society moving to higher levels (the pandemic also having hit the aristocracy). Another explanation highlights the language of the ruling class: The medieval aristocracy had spoken French, but, by the early fifteenth century, they were using English. This may have caused a change to the "prestige accent" of English, either by making pronunciation more French in style or by changing it in some other way, perhaps by hypercorrection to something thought to be "more English" (England being at war with France for much of this period). Another influence may have been the great political and social upheavals of the fifteenth century, which were largely contemporaneous with the Great Vowel Shift.
Because English spelling was becoming standardised in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Great Vowel Shift is responsible for many of the peculiarities of English spelling. Spellings that made sense according to Middle English pronunciation were retained in Modern English because of the adoption and use of the printing press, which was introduced to England in the 1470s by William Caxton and later Richard Pynson.
[edit]
Other languages
German and Dutch also experienced sound changes resembling the first stage of the Great Vowel Shift. In German, by the 15th or 16th centuries, long [iː] had changed to [aɪ], (as in Eis, 'ice') and long [uː] to [aʊ] (as in Haus, 'house'), though some Alemannic dialects resist those changes to this day. In Dutch, the former became [ɛi] (ijs), and the latter had earlier become [yː], which became [œy] (huis). In German, there also was a separate [yː], which became [ɔʏ], via an intermediate similar to the Dutch. In the Polder Dutch pronunciation, the shift has actually been carried further than in Standard Dutch, with a very similar result as in German and English.
German has, like English, also shifted common Germanic *[oː] to [uː], as in Proto-Germanic *fōt- 'foot' > German Fuß (as well as the rare secondary *[eː] to [iː]). However, this similarity turns out to be superficial on closer inspection. Given the huge differences between the structures of Old English and Old High German vowel phonology, this is hardly surprising. There is no indication that English long vowels other than [iː uː] did anything but just move up in tongue-body position. (There is no hint, for example, of the diphthongal features of Modern bee, bay, bone in any of the orthoepic pronunciation manuals of the 17th and 18th centuries.)
In German, the process was totally different, as well as much earlier than the English developments: In the very earliest Old High German texts (9th cent.; note: Old Bavarian is an exception), the vowel in question is already consistently written -uo-. That is, it had 'broken' into a nucleus with a centering glide. This complex nucleus smoothed, as the term has it in Middle High German, becoming the [uː] of Modern German around the same time as the long high vowels diphthongized.
The [oː] of Modern German has a variety of sources, the oldest of which is Proto-Germanic *aw, which smoothed before /t d r x/ (so rot 'red', Ohr 'ear', Floh 'flea', etc.) Elsewhere the sound was written -ou- in OHG.
In similar manner, original *ai became [eː] before /r x w/, remaining what was written -ei- elsewhere. In some German dialects, original /oʊ eɪ/ remain distinct from these new diphthongs, but, in standard German, they fell together with the newly created /aʊ/ and /aɪ/, respectively. The latter is still somewhat eccentrically written -ei- as a rule, a holdover of the days when /eɪ/ was the only such diphthong. Otherwise, German spelling has been kept far more consistent than the spelling of English.
[edit]
See also
Chain shift
History of the English language
International Phonetic Alphabet
Phonological history of English vowels
[edit]
Notes
^ Robert Stockwell (2002). "How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?". In Donka Minkova; Stockwell, Robert. Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3110173689
^ William Labov (1994). Principles of Linguistic Change. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 145. ISBN 0-6311-7914-3.
^ L. Kip Wheeler. "Middle English consonant sounds" (PDF).
^ Wales, K. (2006) Northern English: a cultural and social history, Cambridge: Cambridge University. p.48
^ A History of Scots to 1700, DOST Vol. 12 pp. lvi-lix
[edit]
References
George L. Dillon. "Studying Phonetics on the Net".
See especially the section on American English vowels
Bill Rogers. "A Simplified History of the Phonemes of English".
Baugh, Alfred C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language, 4 ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993.
Cable, Thomas. A Companion to Baugh & Cable's History of the English Language. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1983.
Cercignani, Fausto. Shakespeare's Works and Elizabethan Pronunciation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500-1700, 2 ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968. (See vol. 2, 594-713 for discussion of long stressed vowels)
Freeborn, Dennis. From Old English to Standard English: A Course Book in Language Variation Across Time. Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press, 1992
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Kökeritz, Helge. Shakespeare's Pronunciation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953.
Millward, Celia. A Biography of the English Language, 2 ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace, 1996.
Pyles, Thomas, and John Algeo. The Origins and Development of the English Language, 4 ed. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1993. This article's section called "History" needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)
[edit]
External links
Great Vowel Shift website, Furman University
"What is the Great Vowel Shift?" from the same site
"The Great Vowel Shift" page from the Geoffrey Chaucer section of the Harvard University website[show]
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Categories: History of the English language | Language histories | Vowel shifts
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South African English
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article needs additional citations for verification.
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This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject.
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South Africa
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Geographical distribution of English in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks English at home. 0–20%
20–40%
40–60% 60–80%
80–100%
Geographical distribution of English in South Africa: density of English home-language speakers. <1 /km²
1–3 /km²
3–10 /km²
10–30 /km²
30–100 /km² 100–300 /km²
300–1000 /km²
1000–3000 /km²
>3000 /km²
The term South African English (SAfrE, SAfrEng, SAE, en-ZA[1]) is applied to the first language dialects of English spoken by South Africans, with the L1 English variety spoken by Zimbabweans, Zambians and Namibians, being recognised as offshoots.
There is some social and regional variation within South African English. Social variation within South African English has been classified into three groupings:[2] Cultivated, closely approximating Received Pronunciation and associated with upper class; General, a social indicator of the middle class, and Broad, associated with the working class and/or Afrikaans descent, and closely approximating the second-language Afrikaans-English variety. This is similar to the case in Australian English.Contents [hide]
1 Pronunciation
1.1 Vowels
1.2 Consonants
1.2.1 Plosives
1.2.2 Fricatives and Affricates
1.2.3 Nasals
1.2.3.1 Sonorants
2 Vocabulary
2.1 Lexicon
2.2 Contributions to English Worldwide
3 English Academy of Southern Africa
4 Examples of South African accents
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
[edit]
Pronunciation
Like British English in Southern England, South African English is non-rhotic (except for some Afrikaans-influenced speakers, see below) and features the trap-bath split.
The two main phonological indicators of South African English are the behaviour of the vowels in kit and bath. The kit vowel tends to be "split" so that there is a clear allophonic variation between the close, front [ɪ] and a somewhat more central [ɪ̈]. The bath vowel is characteristically open and back in the General and Broad varieties of SAE. The tendency to monophthongise both /aʊ/ and /aɪ/ to [ɑː] and [aː] respectively, are also typical features of General and Broad SAE.[citation needed]
Features involving consonants include the tendency for voiceless plosives to be unaspirated in stressed word-initial environments, [tj] tune and [dj] dune tend to be realised as [tʃ] and [dʒ] respectively (See Yod-coalescence), and /h/ has a strong tendency to be voiced initially.
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Vowels
/ɪ/ as in kit is split between the realisations [ɪ] and [ɪ̈] in General, and [i] and [ɪ̈~ə] in Broad. The split is an allophonic variation, with the fronter realisation occurring near velar and palatal consonants, and the more central one occurring elsewhere. Cultivated SAE lacks this split, but this feature regarding /ɪ/ is a reliable sociolinguistic marker for South African English in general. Before [ɫ], the vowel may be further back [ɯ̈].
/ɛ/ as in dress is usually realised as [e], though it is lower ([ɛ]) in Broad, sometimes approaching [æ], especially before [ɫ].[citation needed] Some varieties of Broad and General SAE place this vowel higher, around raised [e] or lowered [ɪ].
A slightly raised [æ] is the usual realisation for /æ/ (as in trap) in Cultivated and General. In Broad varieties, it is often raised to [ɛ], so that /æ/ encroaches on /ɛ/ for some speakers.[3] A good example of this is South Africa sounds more like South Efrica.
/ɒ/ (as in lot) ranges from [ɒ̈] to [ɔ]. Lass (2002:115) notes a tendency towards [ʌ̈] in younger Cape Town and Natal speakers of General SAE.
/ʌ/ (as in strut) typically ranges from a low to mid centralised vowel ([ä] to [ɐ]) in SAE.
/ʊ/ (as in foot) is generally realised as high, back centralised [ʊ]. There is little variation, except that there is very little lip rounding relative to other L1 varieties of English worldwide. The pronunciation of [ʊ] with added lip-rounding is associated with Broad, but is more a feature of Afrikaans English (AfkE).
/iː/ (as in fleece) is a long close front vowel [iː] in all varieties. This distinguishes SAE from Australian English and New Zealand English, as the vowel is diphthongal in the latter varieties.
For /ɜːr/ (as in nurse), a somewhat central vowel approximating the RP [ɜː] is used in Cultivated. In General and Broad, it is more rounded, and fronter: [øː] - [ø̈ː], as in French peu.
/uː/ (the vowel in goose) is usually high central [ʉː] or fronter, significantly more forward than its RP equivalent [uː]. Cultivated speakers, however, produce a vowel closer to [uː]. Lass (2002:116) notes a tendency towards [yː] in younger, and especially female, General speakers.
Except in the Cultivated variety, /ɑː/ (the vowel in bath) is low and fully back, [ɑː]. In Broad varieties, there is a tendency to produce a shorter rounder and raised vowel, so that it becomes [ɒ~ɔ].[4][5] Cultivated speakers realise a more central version of [ɑː]. The low and fully back [ɑː] distinguishes SAE from the other Southern Hemisphere varieties.
In Cultivated speech, /ɔː/ (as in thought) is quite open, like RP [ɔː]. In General and Broad, it is higher, [oː]. Broad varieties also have /ɔː/ in words like cloth and loss, where /ɒ/ is otherwise typical.[6]
The norm for /eɪ/ (as in face) in Cultivated and General varieties is [eɪ]. Lass (2002:117) notes a tendency for the onset to be opener the further one deviates from the standard, even to [æɪ]. Broad South African English is characterised by the onset being both open and back, [ʌɪ].
The Cultivated SAE realisation of /aɪ/ (as in price) is close to RP [aɪ]. In General and Broad, the articulation of the first element is often monophthongised to [aː]. In Broad, the first element is somewhat back, but more forward and higher than /ɑː/, and the offglide is often retained: [ɑ̈ɪ].
Cultivated SAE usually realises /aʊ/ (as in mouth) as [ɑ̈ʊ], while General again follows the tendency to monophthongise diphthongs, and often has [ɑː]. Broad has a much fronter onset, and retains the offglide: [æʊ].
In all varieties, /ɔɪ/ (as in choice) is usually [ɔɪ]; the onset can be as low as /ɒ/ for older Cultivated SAE speakers.[7]
There is a tendency among some Cultivated speakers not to round the onset of /oʊ/, so that a Cultivated realisation ranges around [ɛʊ] or [œʊ]. The onset is always rounded in General varieties, usually mid-low; but the off-glide is more central, sometimes unrounded, and there is once again a tendency to monophthongise. Thus, the "normal" General pronunciations of /oʊ/ would be [œʉ], [œɤ̈] or [œː]. In Broad, the onset is much further back, and unrounded: [ʌʊ].
In Cultivated, /ɛə/ (as in square) is pronounced [ɛə], as it is in RP. General speakers follow the tendency to monophthongise, and usually realise the long vowel [ɛː]. Broad speakers monophthongise and raise it to [eː].
/ɪə/ (as in near) is usually [ɪə] in all varieties, with a tendency to monophthongisation in Broad, particularly after [j]. E.g. [njɪː] "near".
Words like cure are usually realised as diphthongal [ʊə] in Cultivated and General; but there is a growing trend, especially when the vowel does not occur after /j/ (sure), in General towards Broad's monophthongal [oː], perhaps slightly lower than /ɔː/. This probably accounts for the spelling of you're as your in everything from student essays to newspaper advertisements.
The unstressed (or secondarily stressed[8]) vowel at the end of words like happy is usually a half-long [iˑ]. Lanham (1968:8) marks this as an indicator of South African English.
The unstressed vowel at the end of words like letter is realised as [ə] in all varieties.
The unstressed vowel at the end of words like comma is usually [ə], but may be as open as [ɐ] in Cultivated SAE; and also in Broad varieties close to Afrikaans English.
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Consonants
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Plosives
/p, b, t, d, k, ɡ/ The voiced and voiceless plosives are distinctive in South African English, and voiceless plosives are generally unaspirated in all positions in Broad South African English, serving as a marker for this subvariety.[9] Other varieties aspirate a voiceless plosive before a stressed syllable. The contrast is neutralised in Broad.
Broad speakers tend to pronounce /t, d/ with some dentition.
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Fricatives and Affricates
/f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, x, h/ South African English is one of the very few varieties to have a velar fricative phoneme /x/,[10] but this is only in words borrowed from Afrikaans (e.g. gogga [xoxə] 'insect'), Khoisan (e.g. Gamtoos, the name of a river), Scots e.g. (loch) and German (e.g. Bach). Many speakers use the Afrikaans voiceless uvular fricative [χ] rather than the velar.
The tendency for /θ/ to be realised as [f] (See: Th-fronting) is a stereotypical Broad feature, but is more accurately associated with Afrikaans English.
As in many varieties of English, word-final /v, ð, z, ʒ/ are usually voiceless, and are distinguished only by the length of the preceding vowel.
In Broad varieties close to AfkE, /h/ is realised as voiced [ɦ] before a stressed vowel.
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Nasals
/m, n, ŋ/ The nasals are not distinctive markers for any variety of South African English; though /n/ may be dental [n̪] before dental consonants.
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Sonorants
In Broad and some General SAE varieties, /j/ strengthens to [ɣ] before a high front vowel: yield [ɣɪːɫd].[citation needed]
/r/ is usually postalveolar or retroflex [ɹ] in Cultivated and General SAE, while Broad varieties have [ɾ] or sometimes even trilled [r]. The latter is more associated with the L2 Afrikaans English variety, though it is sometimes stigmatised as marker of Broad.[11] SAE is non-rhotic, losing postvocalic /r/, except (for some speakers) liaison between two words, when the /r/ is underlying in the first (for a while, here and there etc.) However, intrusive /r is not represented in other contexts: (law and order) [loːnoːdə]. The intervocalic hiatus that is created by the absence of linking /r/ can be broken by vowel deletion, as in the example just given; by a corresponding glide [loːwənoːdə], or by the insertion of a glottal stop: [loːʔənoːdə]. The latter is typical of Broad SAE. There is some evidence of postvocalic /r/ in some Broad Cape varieties, typically in -er suffixes (e.g. writer). This could be under the influence of Afrikaans (and it is a feature of Afrikaans English); or perhaps a remnant of (non-RP) British English from the settlers. Postvocalic /r/ appears to be entering younger people's speech under the influence of American dialects.[citation needed]
/l/ is clear [l] syllable initially, and dark (velarised) [ɫ] syllable finally. When /l/ occurs at the end of a word, but before another word beginning with a vowel, it tends to be realised as clear in Cultivated SAE.[12]
Some (particularly older) Cultivated speakers retain a distinction between /w/ and /hw/ (see wine-whine merger), but this distinction is absent from General and Broad, which has merged both to [w].
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Vocabulary
[edit]
Lexicon
Main articles: List of lexical differences in South African English and List of South African slang words
There are words that do not exist in British or American English, usually derived from African languages such as Afrikaans or Zulu, although, particularly in Durban, there is also an influence from Indian languages and slang developed by subcultures, particularly surfers. Terms in common with North American English include 'mom' (British and Australian English: mum) 'freeway' or 'highway' (British English 'motorway'), 'cellphone' (British and Australian English: mobile) and 'buck' meaning money (rand, in this case, and not a dollar).
South Africans generally refer to the different codes of football, such as soccer and rugby, by those names. There is some difference between South African English dialects: in Johannesburg the local form is very strongly English-based, while its Eastern Cape counterpart has a strong Afrikaans influence. Although differences between the two are sizeable, there are many similarities.
Some words peculiar to South African English include 'takkies', 'tackie' or 'tekkie' for sneakers (American) or trainers (British), 'combi' or 'kombi' for a small van similar to a Volkswagen Kombi, 'bakkie' for a pick-up truck, 'kiff' for pleasurable, 'lekker' for nice, 'donga' for gully, 'dagga' for cannabis, 'braai' (a shortened form of 'braaivleis') for barbecue and 'jol' for party.
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Contributions to English Worldwide
Several South African words, usually from Afrikaans or other indigenous languages of the region, have entered world English: aardvark; apartheid; commando; veld; impala; mamba; trek and spoor.
Recent films such as District 9 have also brought South African and Southern African English to a global audience, as have television personalities like Austin Stevens.
Large numbers of Anglo-Africans and other South African English speakers now live in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and some Persian Gulf states and may have influenced their host community's dialects to some degree. South African English and its slang also has a substantial presence in neighbouring countries like Namibia, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Zambia.
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English Academy of Southern Africa
The English Academy of Southern Africa (EASA) is the only academy for the English language in the world, but unlike such counterparts as the Académie française, it has no official connection with the government and can only attempt to advise, educate, encourage, and discourage. It was founded in 1961 by Professor Gwen Knowles-Williams of the University of Pretoria in part to defend the role of English against pressure from supporters of Afrikaans. It encourages scholarship in issues surrounding English in Africa through regular conferences.
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Examples of South African accents
The following examples of South African accents were obtained from http://accent.gmu.edu)
Native English: Male (Cape Town, South Africa)
Native English: Female (Cape Town, South Africa)
Native English: Male (Port Elizabeth, South Africa)
Native English: Male (Nigel, South Africa)
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See also South Africa portal
Language portal
Formal written English
List of South African slang words
Regional accents of English
List of English words of Afrikaans origin
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References
^ en-ZA is the language code for South African English , as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag).
^ Termed "The Great Trichotomy" by Lass (2002:109ff)
^ Lanham (1967:9)
^ Lass (2002:117)
^ Lanham (1967:14)
^ Lass (2002:116)
^ Lass (2002:118)
^ See Lass (2002:119)
^ Lass (2002:120)
^ See Lass (2002:120)
^ Lass (2002:121)
^ Lass (2002:121)
Kortmand, Bernd, Schneider, Edgar W. (2004). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110175320, 9783110175325
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External links
English Academy of South Africa
Picard, Brig (Dr) J. H, SM, MM. "English for the South African Armed Forces" at the Wayback Machine (archived June 22, 2008).
Zimbabwean Slang Dictionary
"Surfrikan", South African surfing slang
The influence of Afrikaans on SA English (in Dutch)
The Expat Portal RSA Slang[show]
Links to related articles
Categories: English dialects | English language | South African English | Languages of South Africa
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Afrikaner
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Southern African ethnic group. For other uses, see Afrikaner (disambiguation).
Afrikaner people
1st Row: Paul Kruger · Andries Pretorius · Louis Botha ·
2nd Row: J. B. M. Hertzog · Jan Smuts · Eugene Marais ·
3rd Row: André Brink · J. M. Coetzee · Charlize Theron
Total population
3 600 000 (estimated)
Regions with significant populations
South Africa 3,000,000
United Kingdom 100,000 [1]
Namibia 80,000 - 183,000[2]
Zambia 48,000[3]
Australia 40,000 - 45,000[4]
New Zealand 25,000 - 30,000
Netherlands 25,000
Canada
Belgium 15,000
Argentina 11,879
Brazil 2,000-10,000 (estimated).
Botswana 6,400[5] [6][7]
Republic of Ireland 5,500
Kenya 3,500
Languages
First language
Afrikaans
Second or third language
South African English, German, Dutch, Bantu languages
Religion
Protestant (Calvinist Reformed churches), small Catholic minority[8]
Related ethnic groups
Anglo-Africans · Coloureds · Dutch · Flemish · French · Germans
Afrikaners (including distinct Boer subgroup) are an Afrikaans-speaking ethnic group in Southern Africa descended from almost equal numbers [9] of Dutch, French and German settlers whose native tongue is Afrikaans: a Germanic language which derives from a Dutch dialect.Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Related ethno-linguistic groups
1.2 Migrations
1.2.1 Boer republics
1.2.2 Boer War diaspora
1.2.3 South West Africa
2 Modern history
2.1 Apartheid era
2.2 Post-Apartheid era
2.3 Afrikaner diaspora and emigration
2.4 Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
3 Geography
3.1 Namibia
3.2 Global presence
4 Culture
4.1 Religion
4.2 Language
4.3 Literature
4.4 Arts
4.5 Sport
4.6 Numismatics
5 Institutions
5.1 Cultural
5.2 Political
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
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History
[edit]
Related ethno-linguistic groups
Romanticised painting of an account of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck.
The term Afrikaner as used in the 20th and 21st century context refers to all white Afrikaans-speaking people, i.e., those of the larger Cape Dutch origin and of the smaller Boer origin, who are descended from northwestern European settlers who first arrived in the Cape of Good Hope during the period of administration (1652 – 1795) by the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC). Their ancestors were primarily Dutch Calvinists, with smaller numbers of Frisians, Germans and French Huguenots, and with minor numbers of other European groups (such as Dutch Jews, Scandinavians, Portuguese, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Scots, Irish). English South Africans are considered a separate ethnic group from the Boer, and their first language is English.
The Dutch who first settled at the Cape in 1652 established a geographically limited refreshment station for the Dutch East India Company; originally, the Company was not interested in establishing a permanent settlement. However, in order to ensure the viability of the refreshment station, some employees of the Company were freed from their contracts (so-called vrijburgers or free burghers) and allowed to farm. Over time, the boundaries of the colony expanded. The arrival in 1688 of some French Huguenot refugees, who had fled to the Dutch Republic to escape Roman Catholic religious persecution following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, increased the number of settlers. Some of the later colonists, such as German mercenaries in the employ of the Company, and settlers from other parts of Europe (e.g., Scandinavia, Ireland and Scotland) were also incorporated into what became the Boers and Cape Dutch. Most Afrikaner families have between 5% and 7% non-white ancestry as the early Dutch settlement at the Cape allowed inter-racial marriage.[10] This is well attested by genealogical records and DNA research.[9] During the Apartheid era, race classification was based on appearance and there were many borderline cases.[11]
The first person recorded to have identified himself as an Afrikaner was Hendrik Biebouw, who, in March 1707, stated, Ik ben een Afrikander (I am an African), and did not want to leave South Africa. Biebouw was resisting his expulsion from the Cape Colony, as ordered by the magistrate of Stellenbosch. He was banished and sent to Batavia[12] The term shows the individual's first loyalty and a sense of belonging to the territory of modern South Africa, rather than to any ancestral homeland in Europe.
South Africans of British descent generally were and are considered a separate ethnic group from the Afrikaners, and their first language is English. The pastoral Afrikaans-speakers who developed on the Cape frontier were called Boers (boer is the Dutch word for farmer). They have often been considered a slightly separate entity from the Afrikaners,[13] but this is not a widely accepted view; the term nowadays being generally applied to all native speakers of the Afrikaans language of European descent. However, the Boers of Trekboer descent who developed on the Cape frontier from the late 17th century are an anthropologically distinct group from the Afrikaners who developed in the south western Cape region[14] who were often known as the Cape Dutch.[15]
Flag of Dutch Republic 1581 - 1795
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Migrations
The mass migrations under British rule collectively known as the Great Trek were pivotal for the construction of Boer ethnic identity. The Boers created a number of states that were independent of British colonial oversight.
In the 1830s and 1840s, an estimated 10,000 Boers, later referred to as Voortrekkers or "First Movers", migrated to the future Northern Cape, Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal/Northern Interior provinces. They were motivated by the desire to escape British rule and to preserve their religious conservatism. The Trek further split the Afrikaans-speakers previously known as Trekboers (later called 'Voortrekkers'), and the 'Cape Dutch'. These distinctions overlapped with economic differences, as the Trekkers generally had fewer material resources on the frontier than those who remained behind. During the Anglo-Boer War, a number of Cape Dutch assisted the British in fighting against the Boers due to their long historical pro Colonial outlook. [16]
Trekboers in the Karoo.
As important as the Trek was to the formation of Boer ethnic identity, so were the running conflicts with various indigenous groups along the way. None is considered more central to the construction of Boer identity than the clashes with the Zulu in what today is KwaZulu-Natal.
The Boer who entered Natal discovered that the land they wanted was under the authority of the Zulu chief Dingane ka Senzangakhona, who ruled that part of what is now called KwaZulu-Natal. The British had a small port colony there but were unable to seize the whole of area from the war-ready Zulus, and only kept to the Port of Natal. The Boer found the land safe from the English and sent an un-armed Boer land treaty delegation under Piet Retief on February 6, 1838, to negotiate with the Zulu King. The negotiations went well and a contract between Retief and Dingane was signed.
After the signing, Dingane's forces surprised and killed the members of the delegation; a large-scale massacre of the Boer followed. Zulu impis (regiments) attacked Boer encampments in the Drakensberg foothills at what was later called Blaauwkrans and Weenen, killing women and children along with men. By contrast, in earlier conflicts the Trekkers had along the eastern Cape frontier, the Xhosa had refrained from harming women and children. If it were not for an Italian woman by the name of Thérèsa Viglione none of the Boer in Natal would have survived. She was a trader who camped near the Trekkers with three Italian men and three wagons to trade. During the attack by the Zulus on Bloukrans, she fearlessly charged down the banks of the Boesmans River on a horse to warn the laager of Gerrit Maritz against the oncoming Zulus. Because of her action, the Boers were forewarned and could defend themselves - many lives were saved.[17]
The Transvaal Republic sent a commando brigade of 470 men to help the settlers. The Boers vowed to God that if they were victorious over the Zulu, they and future generations would commemorate the day as a Sabbath.
The Zulu customarily attacked in the evening. The gun powder that the Boers used had to be kept completely dry. That evening a mist and light rain came down on the camp, soaking everything. The guns would not work and the Boers waited to die but the Zulus did not come. The Zulu only attacked the next morning when the gunpowder was dry again. Later, it was heard from the Zulu survivors that a strange light hung over the camp and that a monster circled the perimeter keeping them from coming closer. The Zulu also recount that a company of their troops had somehow gotten lost, weakening their army.
On 16 December 1838, a 470-strong force of Andries Pretorius confronted about 10,000 Zulu at the prepared positions.[18] The Boers suffered three injuries without any fatalities. Due to the blood of 3,000 slain Zulus that stained the Ncome River, the conflict afterwards became known as the Battle of Blood River.
Boers celebrate the 16th of December as a public holiday, colloquially called "Dingane's Day". After 1952, the holiday became officially called the Day of the Covenant, changed in 1980 to Day of the Vow (Mackenzie 1999:69). The Boer believed their victory at the Battle of Blood River meant they had found divine favor for their exodus from British rule.
His power broken, King Dingane faced an uprising against his cruel rule in his own tribe and fled to Swaziland where others of his own people brutally killed him. The Boer were invited by the Zulu to bring homage to their new king after the death of the tyrant.
In 1998 at the inauguration of the most recent version of the monument in honor of Blood River, Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Zulu politician and then Minister of Home Affairs, apologized to the Boer people for the murder of Piet Retief and the subsequent suffering of the Boer people.[19]
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Boer republics
Main article: Boer Republics
Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War.
After defeating the Zulu and the recovery of the treaty between Dingane and Retief, the Voortrekkers proclaimed the Boer state of the Natalia Republic. Soon afterward, in 1843, Britain annexed this territory and the Boers who were not warriors vacated.
Due to the return of British rule, Boers fled to the frontiers to the north-west of the Drakensberg mountains, and onto the highveld (steppes) of the Transvaal and Transoranje "Transorangia". These areas were lightly occupied due to armed resistance by the Mfecane. Some Boer ventured far beyond the present-day borders of South Africa, north as far as present-day Zambia and Angola. Others reached the Portuguese colony of Delagoa Bay, later called Lourenço Marques. It is now called Maputo, capital of Mozambique.
Lizzie van Zyl, visited by Emily Hobhouse in a British concentration camp
The Boers created independent states in what is now South Africa: de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (the South African Republic) and the Orange Free State were the most prominent and lasted the longest.
Gold was discovered and awakened British interest in the Boer republics.
When the British annexed these territories, the two Boer Wars resulted: The First Boer War (1880–1881) and the Second Boer War (1899–1902). They ended with British victory and annexation of the Boer areas into the British colonies. The Boers won the first war and retained their independence temporarily. They lost the second. The British employed scorched earth tactics and held many Boers in concentration camps as they tried to take control. An estimated 27,000 Boer civilians (mainly women and children under sixteen) died in the camps from hunger and disease. This was 15 percent of the Boer population of the republics.
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Boer War diaspora
In the 1890s, some Boers moved to Mashonaland and Matabeleland (today Zimbabwe), where they were concentrated at the town of Enkeldoorn, now Chivhu (Du Toit 1998:47). After the second Boer War, more Boers left South Africa. Starting in 1902 a large group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina (most notably in the town of Sarmiento).[20] Another group emigrated to British-ruled Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s as a result of warfare there with indigenous people. A third group, under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen, emigrated to Chihuahua in northern Mexico and to states of Arizona, California, New Mexico and Texas in the south-western USA. Others migrated to other parts of Africa, including German East Africa (present day Tanzania, mostly near Arusha). Some refugees went to Angola, where smaller and larger groups settled on the Bihe and the Humpata plateaus, respectively; Du Toit 1998:45.
It was a relatively large group of Boers who settled in Kenya. Historian Brian du Toit found that the first wave of migrants were single families, followed by larger multiple family treks (Du Toit 1998:57). Some had arrived by 1904, as documented by the caption of a newspaper photograph noting a tent town for "some of the early settlers from South Africa" on what today is the campus of the University of Nairobi.[21] Probably the first to arrive was W.J. Van Breda (1903), followed by John de Waal and Frans Arnoldi at Nakuru (1906). Jannie De Beer's family resided at Athi River, while Ignatius Gouws resided at Solai (Du Toit 1998:45,62).
The second wave of migrants is exemplified by Jan Janse van Rensburg's trek. Janse van Rensburg left the Transvaal on an exploratory trip to British East Africa in 1906 from Lourenco Marques (then Portuguese), Mozambique. Janse van Rensburg was inspired by an earlier Boer migrant, Abraham Joubert, who had moved to Nairobi from Arusha in 1906, along with others. When Joubert visited the Transvaal that year, Janse van Rensburg met with him (Du Toit 1998:61). Sources disagree about whether Janse van Rensburg received guarantees for land from the Governor, Sir James Hayes Sadler (Du Toit 1998:62).
On his return to the Transvaal, Janse van Rensburg recruited about 280 people (comprising either 47 or 60 families) to accompany him to British East Africa. Most came from districts around Ermelo and Carolina. On 9 July 1908 Janse van Rensburg's party sailed in the chartered ship SS Windhuk from Lourenco Marques to Mombasa, from where they boarded a train for Nairobi. The party travelled by five trains to Nakuru.[22]
In 1911 the last of the large trek groups departed for Kenya, when some 60 families from the Orange Free State boarded the SS Skramstad in Durban under leadership of C.J. Cloete.[22] But migration dwindled, partly due to the British secretary of state's (then Lord Crewe) cash requirements for immigrants. When the British granted self-government to the former Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1906 and 1907, respectively, the pressure for emigration decreased. A trickle of individual trekker families continued to migrate into the 1950s (Du Toit 1998:63).
A combination of factors spurred Boer migration on. Some, like Janse van Rensburg and Cloete, had collaborated with the British, or had surrendered during the Boer War (Du Toit 1998:63). These joiners and hensoppers subsequently experienced hostility from other Boers. Many migrants were extremely poor and had subsisted on others' property.[22] Collaborators tended to move to British East Africa, while those who had fought to the end (called bittereinders) initially preferred German West Africa (Du Toit 1999:45). One of the best known Boer settlements in the British East Africa Protectorate was at Eldoret, in the south west of what became known as Kenya in 1920. By 1934 some 700 Boers lived here, near the Uganda border.[23]
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South West Africa
Main article: South West Africa
With the onset of the First World War, the Union of South Africa was asked by the Allied forces to attack the German territory of South West Africa, resulting in the South-West Africa Campaign. Armed forces under the leadership of General Louis Botha defeated the German forces, who were unable to put up much resistance to the overwhelming South African forces.
Boer women and children in British concentration camps.
Many Boers, who had little love or respect for Britain, objected to the use of the “children from the concentration camps” to attack the anti-British Germans, resulting in the Maritz Rebellion of 1914, which was quickly quelled by the government forces.
Some Boer subsequently moved to South West Africa, which was administered by South Africa until its independence in 1990, after which the country was named Namibia.
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Modern history This article's tone or style may not be appropriate for Wikipedia. Specific concerns may be found on the talk page. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (August 2010)
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Apartheid eraApartheid in South Africa
Events and Projects
Sharpeville massacre
Soweto uprising · Treason Trial
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Church Street bombing · CODESA
St James Church massacre
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Organisations
ANC · IFP · AWB · Black Sash · CCB
Conservative Party · ECC · PP · RP
PFP · HNP · MK · PAC · SACP · UDF
Broederbond · National Party
COSATU · SADF · SAP
People
P. W. Botha · D. F. Malan
Nelson Mandela
Desmond Tutu · F. W. de Klerk
Walter Sisulu · Helen Suzman
Harry Schwarz · Andries Treurnicht
H. F. Verwoerd ·Sheena Duncan
Oliver Tambo
B. J. Vorster · Kaiser Matanzima
Jimmy Kruger · Steve Biko
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Trevor Huddleston · Hector Pieterson
Winnie Madikizela-Mandela
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Places
Bantustan · District Six · Robben Island
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Other aspects
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Main article: South Africa under apartheid
In South Africa, the black majority was excluded from equal participation in the affairs of the State and country (except for the homelands of Qwaqwa, Zululand, Ciskei, Transkei, Venda, and Bophuthatswana which were nominally self governed) until 1994.
Apartheid laws were enacted by the British controlled government when the Pass Laws were passed in 1923.
Due to the threat of Communism the status quo was maintained and restrictions on non-whites' social and political segregation further tightened and internationally supported when Afrikaner-led political parties gained control of government in the 1960s.[24] Apartheid unofficially ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of Communism. This resulted in the freeing of Nelson Mandela.[25]
The South African referendum, 1992 was held on 17 March 1992. In it, South Africans were asked to vote in the last tricameral election held under the apartheid system, in which the Coloured and Indian population groups could also vote, to determine whether or not they supported the negotiated reforms begun by then State President F.W. de Klerk two years earlier. With Communism gone, the result of the election was a large victory for the "yes" side. Election analysts however reported that support to dismantle Apartheid among the Afrikaners was actually slightly higher than among English speakers.[26] This assertion is debatable given that statistical analysis published by the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation(CSVR) has shown that Afrikaners supported apartheid policies to a greater extent than English-speakers from the 1970s to the 1990s. (Between Acknowledgement and Ignorance:How white South Africans have dealt with the apartheid past)
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Post-Apartheid era
Efforts are being made by a few Afrikaners to secure minority rights even though protection of minority rights is fundamental to the new 1996 post-apartheid Constitution of South Africa. These efforts include the Volkstaat movement. In contrast, a handful of Afrikaners have joined the ruling African National Congress party, which is overwhelmingly supported by South Africa's black majority. However, the vast majority of Afrikaners/Boer have joined White English-speakers in supporting South Africa's official opposition, the Democratic Alliance, indicating their acceptance of non-racism within a free enterprise economy.
Employment Equity legislation favours employment of black (African, Indian and Coloured) South Africans and women over white men. Black Economic Empowerment legislation further favours blacks as the government considers ownership, employment, training and social responsibility initiatives which empower black South Africans as important criteria when awarding tenders. However, private enterprise adheres to this legislation voluntarily.[27] Some reports indicate a growing number of whites suffering poverty compared to the pre-Apartheid years and attribute this to such laws - over 350,000 Afrikaners may be classified as poor, with some research claiming that up to 150,000 are struggling for survival.[28][29] This combined with a wave of violent crime has led to vast numbers of English and Boer South Africans leaving the country.
There have been increasing incidents of racism against white South Africans since 1994. In particular the actions of racist police personnel towards white victims have attracted media attention.[30] White men arrested and held in overcrowded cells on minor or spurious charges have taken legal action against the government, as many have been raped and assaulted by violent criminals (often rape and murder suspects) held in the same cells.[31]
Genocide Watch has theorized that farm attacks constitute early warning signs of genocide against Afrikaners and has criticised the South African government for its inaction on the issue, pointing out that the murder rate for them ("ethno-European farmers" in their report, which also included non-Afrikaner farmers of European race) is four times that of the general South African population.[32] There are 40,000 white farmers in South Africa. Since 1994 close to three thousand farmers have been murdered in thousands of farm attacks[33], with many being brutally tortured and/or raped. Some victims have been burned with smoothing irons or had boiling water poured down their throats.[34]
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Afrikaner diaspora and emigration
Since 1994 there has been significant emigration of skilled white persons from South Africa. There are thus currently large Afrikaner and English South African communities in the UK and other developed nations. Since 1994, more than one million South Africans have emigrated, citing violent and racially motivated crime[35] as the main reason.[36] See human capital flight in South Africa for details.
The "Vryheidsvlag" (Freedom Flag) erstwhile called the Rebellevlag (Rebels Flag) believed to be used by some Cape Rebels during the second Anglo-Boer War.[37]
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Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Main article: Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) awarded the Afrikaner people membership during its IX General Assembly on 16 – 17 May 2008 in Brussels, Belgium.
The UNPO is a democratic, international organization. Its members are indigenous peoples, occupied nations, minorities and independent states or territories which lack representation internationally.
This successful application for membership represents a formal acknowledgment by an international organisation of the fact the Afrikaner people have since 1994 become a stateless nation. The Freedom Front leader, dr. Pieter Mulder accepted membership of UNPO on behalf of the Afrikaner people.[38]
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Geography
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Namibia
There were 133,324 speakers of Afrikaans in Namibia, forming 9.5% of the total national population, according to the 1991 census. However the majority of these speakers come from the Coloured and Baster communities.[citation needed] Afrikaners are mostly found in Windhoek and in the Southern provinces.[39]
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Global presence
A significant number of Afrikaners have migrated to countries such as Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Netherlands, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Spain, Argentina, Mexico and Brazil.
A large number of young Afrikaners are taking advantage of working holiday visas made available by the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, as well as the Netherlands and Belgium, to gain work experience. The scheme under which UK working holiday visas were issued ended on the 27th November 2008 and has been replaced by the Tier 5 (Youth Mobility) visa. South Africa is unlikely to partake in this scheme.
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Culture
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Religion
Main article: Afrikaner Calvinism
Mainly Christian, the Calvinism of Boers in South Africa developed in much the same way as the New England colonies in North America. The original South African Boer republics were founded on the principles of the Dutch Reformed Church.
A good example of how the Boer culture and religion interlinked can be seen when gold was discovered in Johannesburg. The Boer community desperately tried to keep it a secret for fear that exploitation of the resource would lead to moral degradation of the Republic. Even after the mines were running, the Boers did not get involved and kept to farming.
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Language
Main article: Afrikaans
The Afrikaans language changed over time from the Dutch spoken by the first white settlers at the Cape. From the late 17th century, the form of Dutch spoken at the Cape developed differences, mostly in morphology but also in pronunciation and accent and, to a lesser extent, in syntax and vocabulary, from that of the Netherlands, although the languages are still similar enough to be mutually intelligible. Settlers who arrived speaking German and French soon shifted to using Dutch and later Afrikaans. The process of language change was influenced by the languages spoken by slaves, Khoikhoi and people of mixed descent, as well as by Cape Malay, Zulu, English and Portuguese. While the Dutch of the Netherlands remained the official language, the new dialect, often known as Cape Dutch, African Dutch, "Kitchen Dutch", or "Taal" (meaning language in Afrikaans) developed into a separate language by the 19th century, with much work done by the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners and other writers such as Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven. In a 1925 act of Parliament, Afrikaans replaced standard Dutch as one of the two official languages of the Union of South Africa. There was much objection to the attempt to legislate the creation of Afrikaans as a new language. Marthinus Steyn, a prominent jurist and politician, and others were vocal in their opposition. They perceived that legalization of Afrikaans as an official language would only serve to isolate the Afrikaners, as they would be the only people in the world to speak Afrikaans. Steyn, who died before 1925, had been educated in Holland and England and was a worldly cosmopolitan figure. Today, Afrikaans is recognised as one of the eleven official languages of the new South Africa, and is widely accepted as an appropriate means of communication for a large number of South Africans.
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Literature
Afrikaners have a long literary tradition, and have produced a number of notable novelists and poets, including Eugene Marais, Uys Krige, Elisabeth Eybers, Breyten Breytenbach, André Brink, and Etienne Leroux. See section on South African literature
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Arts
Music is probably the most popular art form among Afrikaners. While the traditional Boeremusiek (Boer Music) and Volkspele (literally, People Games) folk dancing enjoyed popularity in the past, most Afrikaners today favour a variety of international genres and light popular Afrikaans music. American country and western music has enjoyed great popularity and has a strong following among many South Africans. Some also enjoy a social dance event called a sokkie. The South African rock band, Seether, has a hidden track on their album, Karma and Effect, that is sung in the Afrikaans language. It is titled, Kom Saam Met My, which is translated as Come With Me. There is also an underground rock music movement and bands like the controversial Fokofpolisiekar have a large following. The television Channel MK (channel) also supports local Afrikaans music and mainly screen videos from the Afrikaans Rock genre.[40] Also see section on protest music(South African)
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Sport
Rugby, cricket, and golf are generally considered to be the most popular sports among Afrikaners. Rugby in particular is considered one of the central pillars of the Afrikaner community. The Springboks won the 1995 and 2007 Rugby World Cups.
"Boere-sport" also played a very big role in the Afrikaner history. It consisted of a variety of sports like tug of war, three-legged races, jukskei, skilpadloop (tortoise walk) and other games.
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Numismatics
The world's first ounce-denominated gold coin, the Krugerrand was struck at the South African Mint on the third of July 1967. The name Krugerrand was derived from Kruger (President Paul Kruger) and rand the monetary unit of South Africa. The Rand is associated with the area called Witwatersrand, "the ridge of white water" an important gold producing area.
In April 2007, the South African Mint coined a collectors R1 gold coin commemorating the Afrikaner people as part of its cultural series, depicting the Great Trek across the Drakensberg mountains.
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Institutions
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Cultural
The Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuurvereniging (ATKV) (Afrikaans Language and Culture Society) is responsible for promoting the Afrikaans language and culture.
Die Voortrekkers is a youth movement for Afrikaners in South Africa and Namibia with a membership of over 10 000 active members to promote cultural values, maintaining norms and standards as Christians, and being accountable members of public society. Visit their web page on http://www.voortrekkers.org.za
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Political
An estimated 82% of Afrikaners supported the Democratic Alliance, the official opposition party, in the 2009 general election.[41]
Smaller numbers are involved in nationalist or separatist political organizations. The Freedom Front Plus is an Afrikaner ethnic political party in the Republican tradition, which lobbies for minority rights to be granted to all of the South African ethnic minorities. The Freedom Front Plus is also leading the Volkstaat initiative and is closely associated with the small town of Orania.[42]
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See also South Africa portal
Afrikaner Calvinism
Afrikaner nationalism
Afrikaner cattle
Anglo-Africans
Afrikaner-Jews
Ethnic groups in Africa
Huguenots in South Africa
White South Africans
White people
White Africans
Boer
Cape Coloureds
Cape Dutch
Cape Malays
Culture of South Africa
List of notable Afrikaners
[edit]
References
^ [1]
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=WA&rop3=100093
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=100093&rog3=ZA
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=100093&rog3=AS
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=BC&rop3=100093
^ [2]
^ South Africans in Patagonia
^ Geskiedenis Katolieke Afrikaners
^ a b J. A. Heese (1971). Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657-1867 (Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657-1867 ed.). Kaapstad: A. A. Balkema. OCLC 1821706.
^ Greeff, J.M. (2007-03-13). "Deconstructing Jaco: Genetic Heritage of an Afrikaner". Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
^ Stanford News Service. South African activist teacher gets education doctorate
^ Hermann Giliomee, The Afrikaners: Biography of a People, University of Virginia Press, 2003
^ Yolandi Groenewald, "Bang bang – you’re dead", Mail & Guardian Online
^ Professor Wallace Mills. White Settlers in South Africa to 1870.
^ Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe. Christianity in Central Southern Africa Prior to 1910.
^ Mordechai Tamarkin. Cecil Rhodes and the Cape Afrikaners.
^ http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol014lb.html
^ Battle of Blood River - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
^ Speech delivered by the Minister of Home Affairs (Chairman of the House of Traditional Leaders) at the inauguration of the Ncome/Blood River Monument - 16 December 1998
^ "Don’t cry for me Orania". South Africa: The Times. 2008-02-05. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
^ "Title Unknown". Archived from the original on 2009-10-24.
^ a b c "van Rensburg trek leader to Kenya". Archived from the original on 2009-10-24.
^ "GREAT BRITAIN: In Kenya Colony". Time. 1934-10-15. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ http://www.margaretthatcher.org/commenta...sp?docid=110862
^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/466228
^ Countrystudies Toward Democracy
^ [3]
^ Simon Wood meets the people who lost most when Mandela won in South Africa
^ South Africa - Poor Whites
^ "Cop: You whites must f*** **f". News24. 6 November 2008.
^ "Inmates sang to drown screams". News24. 22 October 2008.
^ "Over 1000 Boer Farmers In South Africa Have Been Murdered Since 1991". Genocide Watch. Archived from the original on 2005-12-30. Retrieved 2005-12-31.
^ White farmers being wiped out, The Times
^ Criminal Justice Monitor (2003-07-31). Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Farm Attacks. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
^ "Racially Motivated Crime".
^ Million whites leave SA- study
^ Flags of the World
^ UNPO list of member states
^ International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2001) Population project
^ http://beta.mnet.co.za/MK/
^ The Afrikaners: Twenty traumatic years PoliticsWeb. 1 March 2010
^ Afrikaner Independence (1): Interview With Freedom Front General-Secretary Col. Piet Uys Global Politician. 24 May 2005
South Africa Suspends Disposal Of State Mining Assets
Du Toit, Brian M. 1998. The Boers in East Africa: Ethnicity and Identity. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Gilliomee, Hermann. 1989. The Beginnings of Afrikaner Ethnic Consciousness, 1850–1915, in Leroy Vail (ed.) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London/ Berkeley: Currey University of California Press, 1989. [4]
Mackenzie, S.P. 1997. Revolutionary Armies in the Modern Era: A Revisionist Approach. Routledge.
Van der Watt, Liese. 1997. 'Savagery and civilisation': race as a signifier of difference in Afrikaner nationalist art, De Arte 55. [5]
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External links
The Historical Heritage of The Afrikaner Nation
South Africa - Poor Whites
South Africa: Poor whites are strangers in a new land
2001 Digital Census Atlas
Afrikaner Nationalism Captures The State.
The Afrikaners of South Africa.
(French) Afrique du Sud
(French) mSN Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31)
Boer soldiers
British Policies and Afrikaner Discontent
The genetic heritage of one Afrikaner family (Archived 2009-10-24)
Afrikaans Wiki
ATKV - Afrikaanse Taal- en Kultuurvereniging
Some Boer characteristics, by George Lacy (The North American Review / Volume 170, Issue 518, January 1900)
Arthur Conan Doyle's description of Afrikaners/ Boere.
Between Acknowledgement and Ignorance:How white South Africans have dealt with the apartheid past[show]
v · d · e
Ethnic groups in South Africa
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v · d · e
White people in Africa
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Dutch diaspora
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French diaspora
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German people
Categories: Afrikaner people | Dutch diaspora | Ethnic groups in South Africa | French diaspora
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Afrikaner
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the Southern African ethnic group. For other uses, see Afrikaner (disambiguation).
Afrikaner people
1st Row: Paul Kruger · Andries Pretorius · Louis Botha ·
2nd Row: J. B. M. Hertzog · Jan Smuts · Eugene Marais ·
3rd Row: André Brink · J. M. Coetzee · Charlize Theron
Total population
3 600 000 (estimated)
Regions with significant populations
South Africa 3,000,000
United Kingdom 100,000 [1]
Namibia 80,000 - 183,000[2]
Zambia 48,000[3]
Australia 40,000 - 45,000[4]
New Zealand 25,000 - 30,000
Netherlands 25,000
Canada
Belgium 15,000
Argentina 11,879
Brazil 2,000-10,000 (estimated).
Botswana 6,400[5] [6][7]
Republic of Ireland 5,500
Kenya 3,500
Languages
First language
Afrikaans
Second or third language
South African English, German, Dutch, Bantu languages
Religion
Protestant (Calvinist Reformed churches), small Catholic minority[8]
Related ethnic groups
Anglo-Africans · Coloureds · Dutch · Flemish · French · Germans
Afrikaners (including distinct Boer subgroup) are an Afrikaans-speaking ethnic group in Southern Africa descended from almost equal numbers [9] of Dutch, French and German settlers whose native tongue is Afrikaans: a Germanic language which derives from a Dutch dialect.Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Related ethno-linguistic groups
1.2 Migrations
1.2.1 Boer republics
1.2.2 Boer War diaspora
1.2.3 South West Africa
2 Modern history
2.1 Apartheid era
2.2 Post-Apartheid era
2.3 Afrikaner diaspora and emigration
2.4 Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
3 Geography
3.1 Namibia
3.2 Global presence
4 Culture
4.1 Religion
4.2 Language
4.3 Literature
4.4 Arts
4.5 Sport
4.6 Numismatics
5 Institutions
5.1 Cultural
5.2 Political
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
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History
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Related ethno-linguistic groups
Romanticised painting of an account of the arrival of Jan van Riebeeck.
The term Afrikaner as used in the 20th and 21st century context refers to all white Afrikaans-speaking people, i.e., those of the larger Cape Dutch origin and of the smaller Boer origin, who are descended from northwestern European settlers who first arrived in the Cape of Good Hope during the period of administration (1652 – 1795) by the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC). Their ancestors were primarily Dutch Calvinists, with smaller numbers of Frisians, Germans and French Huguenots, and with minor numbers of other European groups (such as Dutch Jews, Scandinavians, Portuguese, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Scots, Irish). English South Africans are considered a separate ethnic group from the Boer, and their first language is English.
The Dutch who first settled at the Cape in 1652 established a geographically limited refreshment station for the Dutch East India Company; originally, the Company was not interested in establishing a permanent settlement. However, in order to ensure the viability of the refreshment station, some employees of the Company were freed from their contracts (so-called vrijburgers or free burghers) and allowed to farm. Over time, the boundaries of the colony expanded. The arrival in 1688 of some French Huguenot refugees, who had fled to the Dutch Republic to escape Roman Catholic religious persecution following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, increased the number of settlers. Some of the later colonists, such as German mercenaries in the employ of the Company, and settlers from other parts of Europe (e.g., Scandinavia, Ireland and Scotland) were also incorporated into what became the Boers and Cape Dutch. Most Afrikaner families have between 5% and 7% non-white ancestry as the early Dutch settlement at the Cape allowed inter-racial marriage.[10] This is well attested by genealogical records and DNA research.[9] During the Apartheid era, race classification was based on appearance and there were many borderline cases.[11]
The first person recorded to have identified himself as an Afrikaner was Hendrik Biebouw, who, in March 1707, stated, Ik ben een Afrikander (I am an African), and did not want to leave South Africa. Biebouw was resisting his expulsion from the Cape Colony, as ordered by the magistrate of Stellenbosch. He was banished and sent to Batavia[12] The term shows the individual's first loyalty and a sense of belonging to the territory of modern South Africa, rather than to any ancestral homeland in Europe.
South Africans of British descent generally were and are considered a separate ethnic group from the Afrikaners, and their first language is English. The pastoral Afrikaans-speakers who developed on the Cape frontier were called Boers (boer is the Dutch word for farmer). They have often been considered a slightly separate entity from the Afrikaners,[13] but this is not a widely accepted view; the term nowadays being generally applied to all native speakers of the Afrikaans language of European descent. However, the Boers of Trekboer descent who developed on the Cape frontier from the late 17th century are an anthropologically distinct group from the Afrikaners who developed in the south western Cape region[14] who were often known as the Cape Dutch.[15]
Flag of Dutch Republic 1581 - 1795
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Migrations
The mass migrations under British rule collectively known as the Great Trek were pivotal for the construction of Boer ethnic identity. The Boers created a number of states that were independent of British colonial oversight.
In the 1830s and 1840s, an estimated 10,000 Boers, later referred to as Voortrekkers or "First Movers", migrated to the future Northern Cape, Natal, Orange Free State, and Transvaal/Northern Interior provinces. They were motivated by the desire to escape British rule and to preserve their religious conservatism. The Trek further split the Afrikaans-speakers previously known as Trekboers (later called 'Voortrekkers'), and the 'Cape Dutch'. These distinctions overlapped with economic differences, as the Trekkers generally had fewer material resources on the frontier than those who remained behind. During the Anglo-Boer War, a number of Cape Dutch assisted the British in fighting against the Boers due to their long historical pro Colonial outlook. [16]
Trekboers in the Karoo.
As important as the Trek was to the formation of Boer ethnic identity, so were the running conflicts with various indigenous groups along the way. None is considered more central to the construction of Boer identity than the clashes with the Zulu in what today is KwaZulu-Natal.
The Boer who entered Natal discovered that the land they wanted was under the authority of the Zulu chief Dingane ka Senzangakhona, who ruled that part of what is now called KwaZulu-Natal. The British had a small port colony there but were unable to seize the whole of area from the war-ready Zulus, and only kept to the Port of Natal. The Boer found the land safe from the English and sent an un-armed Boer land treaty delegation under Piet Retief on February 6, 1838, to negotiate with the Zulu King. The negotiations went well and a contract between Retief and Dingane was signed.
After the signing, Dingane's forces surprised and killed the members of the delegation; a large-scale massacre of the Boer followed. Zulu impis (regiments) attacked Boer encampments in the Drakensberg foothills at what was later called Blaauwkrans and Weenen, killing women and children along with men. By contrast, in earlier conflicts the Trekkers had along the eastern Cape frontier, the Xhosa had refrained from harming women and children. If it were not for an Italian woman by the name of Thérèsa Viglione none of the Boer in Natal would have survived. She was a trader who camped near the Trekkers with three Italian men and three wagons to trade. During the attack by the Zulus on Bloukrans, she fearlessly charged down the banks of the Boesmans River on a horse to warn the laager of Gerrit Maritz against the oncoming Zulus. Because of her action, the Boers were forewarned and could defend themselves - many lives were saved.[17]
The Transvaal Republic sent a commando brigade of 470 men to help the settlers. The Boers vowed to God that if they were victorious over the Zulu, they and future generations would commemorate the day as a Sabbath.
The Zulu customarily attacked in the evening. The gun powder that the Boers used had to be kept completely dry. That evening a mist and light rain came down on the camp, soaking everything. The guns would not work and the Boers waited to die but the Zulus did not come. The Zulu only attacked the next morning when the gunpowder was dry again. Later, it was heard from the Zulu survivors that a strange light hung over the camp and that a monster circled the perimeter keeping them from coming closer. The Zulu also recount that a company of their troops had somehow gotten lost, weakening their army.
On 16 December 1838, a 470-strong force of Andries Pretorius confronted about 10,000 Zulu at the prepared positions.[18] The Boers suffered three injuries without any fatalities. Due to the blood of 3,000 slain Zulus that stained the Ncome River, the conflict afterwards became known as the Battle of Blood River.
Boers celebrate the 16th of December as a public holiday, colloquially called "Dingane's Day". After 1952, the holiday became officially called the Day of the Covenant, changed in 1980 to Day of the Vow (Mackenzie 1999:69). The Boer believed their victory at the Battle of Blood River meant they had found divine favor for their exodus from British rule.
His power broken, King Dingane faced an uprising against his cruel rule in his own tribe and fled to Swaziland where others of his own people brutally killed him. The Boer were invited by the Zulu to bring homage to their new king after the death of the tyrant.
In 1998 at the inauguration of the most recent version of the monument in honor of Blood River, Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Zulu politician and then Minister of Home Affairs, apologized to the Boer people for the murder of Piet Retief and the subsequent suffering of the Boer people.[19]
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Boer republics
Main article: Boer Republics
Boer guerrillas during the Second Boer War.
After defeating the Zulu and the recovery of the treaty between Dingane and Retief, the Voortrekkers proclaimed the Boer state of the Natalia Republic. Soon afterward, in 1843, Britain annexed this territory and the Boers who were not warriors vacated.
Due to the return of British rule, Boers fled to the frontiers to the north-west of the Drakensberg mountains, and onto the highveld (steppes) of the Transvaal and Transoranje "Transorangia". These areas were lightly occupied due to armed resistance by the Mfecane. Some Boer ventured far beyond the present-day borders of South Africa, north as far as present-day Zambia and Angola. Others reached the Portuguese colony of Delagoa Bay, later called Lourenço Marques. It is now called Maputo, capital of Mozambique.
Lizzie van Zyl, visited by Emily Hobhouse in a British concentration camp
The Boers created independent states in what is now South Africa: de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (the South African Republic) and the Orange Free State were the most prominent and lasted the longest.
Gold was discovered and awakened British interest in the Boer republics.
When the British annexed these territories, the two Boer Wars resulted: The First Boer War (1880–1881) and the Second Boer War (1899–1902). They ended with British victory and annexation of the Boer areas into the British colonies. The Boers won the first war and retained their independence temporarily. They lost the second. The British employed scorched earth tactics and held many Boers in concentration camps as they tried to take control. An estimated 27,000 Boer civilians (mainly women and children under sixteen) died in the camps from hunger and disease. This was 15 percent of the Boer population of the republics.
[edit]
Boer War diaspora
In the 1890s, some Boers moved to Mashonaland and Matabeleland (today Zimbabwe), where they were concentrated at the town of Enkeldoorn, now Chivhu (Du Toit 1998:47). After the second Boer War, more Boers left South Africa. Starting in 1902 a large group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina (most notably in the town of Sarmiento).[20] Another group emigrated to British-ruled Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s as a result of warfare there with indigenous people. A third group, under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen, emigrated to Chihuahua in northern Mexico and to states of Arizona, California, New Mexico and Texas in the south-western USA. Others migrated to other parts of Africa, including German East Africa (present day Tanzania, mostly near Arusha). Some refugees went to Angola, where smaller and larger groups settled on the Bihe and the Humpata plateaus, respectively; Du Toit 1998:45.
It was a relatively large group of Boers who settled in Kenya. Historian Brian du Toit found that the first wave of migrants were single families, followed by larger multiple family treks (Du Toit 1998:57). Some had arrived by 1904, as documented by the caption of a newspaper photograph noting a tent town for "some of the early settlers from South Africa" on what today is the campus of the University of Nairobi.[21] Probably the first to arrive was W.J. Van Breda (1903), followed by John de Waal and Frans Arnoldi at Nakuru (1906). Jannie De Beer's family resided at Athi River, while Ignatius Gouws resided at Solai (Du Toit 1998:45,62).
The second wave of migrants is exemplified by Jan Janse van Rensburg's trek. Janse van Rensburg left the Transvaal on an exploratory trip to British East Africa in 1906 from Lourenco Marques (then Portuguese), Mozambique. Janse van Rensburg was inspired by an earlier Boer migrant, Abraham Joubert, who had moved to Nairobi from Arusha in 1906, along with others. When Joubert visited the Transvaal that year, Janse van Rensburg met with him (Du Toit 1998:61). Sources disagree about whether Janse van Rensburg received guarantees for land from the Governor, Sir James Hayes Sadler (Du Toit 1998:62).
On his return to the Transvaal, Janse van Rensburg recruited about 280 people (comprising either 47 or 60 families) to accompany him to British East Africa. Most came from districts around Ermelo and Carolina. On 9 July 1908 Janse van Rensburg's party sailed in the chartered ship SS Windhuk from Lourenco Marques to Mombasa, from where they boarded a train for Nairobi. The party travelled by five trains to Nakuru.[22]
In 1911 the last of the large trek groups departed for Kenya, when some 60 families from the Orange Free State boarded the SS Skramstad in Durban under leadership of C.J. Cloete.[22] But migration dwindled, partly due to the British secretary of state's (then Lord Crewe) cash requirements for immigrants. When the British granted self-government to the former Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1906 and 1907, respectively, the pressure for emigration decreased. A trickle of individual trekker families continued to migrate into the 1950s (Du Toit 1998:63).
A combination of factors spurred Boer migration on. Some, like Janse van Rensburg and Cloete, had collaborated with the British, or had surrendered during the Boer War (Du Toit 1998:63). These joiners and hensoppers subsequently experienced hostility from other Boers. Many migrants were extremely poor and had subsisted on others' property.[22] Collaborators tended to move to British East Africa, while those who had fought to the end (called bittereinders) initially preferred German West Africa (Du Toit 1999:45). One of the best known Boer settlements in the British East Africa Protectorate was at Eldoret, in the south west of what became known as Kenya in 1920. By 1934 some 700 Boers lived here, near the Uganda border.[23]
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South West Africa
Main article: South West Africa
With the onset of the First World War, the Union of South Africa was asked by the Allied forces to attack the German territory of South West Africa, resulting in the South-West Africa Campaign. Armed forces under the leadership of General Louis Botha defeated the German forces, who were unable to put up much resistance to the overwhelming South African forces.
Boer women and children in British concentration camps.
Many Boers, who had little love or respect for Britain, objected to the use of the “children from the concentration camps” to attack the anti-British Germans, resulting in the Maritz Rebellion of 1914, which was quickly quelled by the government forces.
Some Boer subsequently moved to South West Africa, which was administered by South Africa until its independence in 1990, after which the country was named Namibia.
[edit]
Modern history This article's tone or style may not be appropriate for Wikipedia. Specific concerns may be found on the talk page. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (August 2010)
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This article has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality. Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page. (August 2010)
[edit]
Apartheid eraApartheid in South Africa
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Main article: South Africa under apartheid
In South Africa, the black majority was excluded from equal participation in the affairs of the State and country (except for the homelands of Qwaqwa, Zululand, Ciskei, Transkei, Venda, and Bophuthatswana which were nominally self governed) until 1994.
Apartheid laws were enacted by the British controlled government when the Pass Laws were passed in 1923.
Due to the threat of Communism the status quo was maintained and restrictions on non-whites' social and political segregation further tightened and internationally supported when Afrikaner-led political parties gained control of government in the 1960s.[24] Apartheid unofficially ended with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of Communism. This resulted in the freeing of Nelson Mandela.[25]
The South African referendum, 1992 was held on 17 March 1992. In it, South Africans were asked to vote in the last tricameral election held under the apartheid system, in which the Coloured and Indian population groups could also vote, to determine whether or not they supported the negotiated reforms begun by then State President F.W. de Klerk two years earlier. With Communism gone, the result of the election was a large victory for the "yes" side. Election analysts however reported that support to dismantle Apartheid among the Afrikaners was actually slightly higher than among English speakers.[26] This assertion is debatable given that statistical analysis published by the Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation(CSVR) has shown that Afrikaners supported apartheid policies to a greater extent than English-speakers from the 1970s to the 1990s. (Between Acknowledgement and Ignorance:How white South Africans have dealt with the apartheid past)
[edit]
Post-Apartheid era
Efforts are being made by a few Afrikaners to secure minority rights even though protection of minority rights is fundamental to the new 1996 post-apartheid Constitution of South Africa. These efforts include the Volkstaat movement. In contrast, a handful of Afrikaners have joined the ruling African National Congress party, which is overwhelmingly supported by South Africa's black majority. However, the vast majority of Afrikaners/Boer have joined White English-speakers in supporting South Africa's official opposition, the Democratic Alliance, indicating their acceptance of non-racism within a free enterprise economy.
Employment Equity legislation favours employment of black (African, Indian and Coloured) South Africans and women over white men. Black Economic Empowerment legislation further favours blacks as the government considers ownership, employment, training and social responsibility initiatives which empower black South Africans as important criteria when awarding tenders. However, private enterprise adheres to this legislation voluntarily.[27] Some reports indicate a growing number of whites suffering poverty compared to the pre-Apartheid years and attribute this to such laws - over 350,000 Afrikaners may be classified as poor, with some research claiming that up to 150,000 are struggling for survival.[28][29] This combined with a wave of violent crime has led to vast numbers of English and Boer South Africans leaving the country.
There have been increasing incidents of racism against white South Africans since 1994. In particular the actions of racist police personnel towards white victims have attracted media attention.[30] White men arrested and held in overcrowded cells on minor or spurious charges have taken legal action against the government, as many have been raped and assaulted by violent criminals (often rape and murder suspects) held in the same cells.[31]
Genocide Watch has theorized that farm attacks constitute early warning signs of genocide against Afrikaners and has criticised the South African government for its inaction on the issue, pointing out that the murder rate for them ("ethno-European farmers" in their report, which also included non-Afrikaner farmers of European race) is four times that of the general South African population.[32] There are 40,000 white farmers in South Africa. Since 1994 close to three thousand farmers have been murdered in thousands of farm attacks[33], with many being brutally tortured and/or raped. Some victims have been burned with smoothing irons or had boiling water poured down their throats.[34]
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Afrikaner diaspora and emigration
Since 1994 there has been significant emigration of skilled white persons from South Africa. There are thus currently large Afrikaner and English South African communities in the UK and other developed nations. Since 1994, more than one million South Africans have emigrated, citing violent and racially motivated crime[35] as the main reason.[36] See human capital flight in South Africa for details.
The "Vryheidsvlag" (Freedom Flag) erstwhile called the Rebellevlag (Rebels Flag) believed to be used by some Cape Rebels during the second Anglo-Boer War.[37]
[edit]
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Main article: Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) awarded the Afrikaner people membership during its IX General Assembly on 16 – 17 May 2008 in Brussels, Belgium.
The UNPO is a democratic, international organization. Its members are indigenous peoples, occupied nations, minorities and independent states or territories which lack representation internationally.
This successful application for membership represents a formal acknowledgment by an international organisation of the fact the Afrikaner people have since 1994 become a stateless nation. The Freedom Front leader, dr. Pieter Mulder accepted membership of UNPO on behalf of the Afrikaner people.[38]
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Geography
[edit]
Namibia
There were 133,324 speakers of Afrikaans in Namibia, forming 9.5% of the total national population, according to the 1991 census. However the majority of these speakers come from the Coloured and Baster communities.[citation needed] Afrikaners are mostly found in Windhoek and in the Southern provinces.[39]
[edit]
Global presence
A significant number of Afrikaners have migrated to countries such as Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, the Netherlands, Belgium, Australia, New Zealand, Spain, Argentina, Mexico and Brazil.
A large number of young Afrikaners are taking advantage of working holiday visas made available by the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, as well as the Netherlands and Belgium, to gain work experience. The scheme under which UK working holiday visas were issued ended on the 27th November 2008 and has been replaced by the Tier 5 (Youth Mobility) visa. South Africa is unlikely to partake in this scheme.
[edit]
Culture
[edit]
Religion
Main article: Afrikaner Calvinism
Mainly Christian, the Calvinism of Boers in South Africa developed in much the same way as the New England colonies in North America. The original South African Boer republics were founded on the principles of the Dutch Reformed Church.
A good example of how the Boer culture and religion interlinked can be seen when gold was discovered in Johannesburg. The Boer community desperately tried to keep it a secret for fear that exploitation of the resource would lead to moral degradation of the Republic. Even after the mines were running, the Boers did not get involved and kept to farming.
[edit]
Language
Main article: Afrikaans
The Afrikaans language changed over time from the Dutch spoken by the first white settlers at the Cape. From the late 17th century, the form of Dutch spoken at the Cape developed differences, mostly in morphology but also in pronunciation and accent and, to a lesser extent, in syntax and vocabulary, from that of the Netherlands, although the languages are still similar enough to be mutually intelligible. Settlers who arrived speaking German and French soon shifted to using Dutch and later Afrikaans. The process of language change was influenced by the languages spoken by slaves, Khoikhoi and people of mixed descent, as well as by Cape Malay, Zulu, English and Portuguese. While the Dutch of the Netherlands remained the official language, the new dialect, often known as Cape Dutch, African Dutch, "Kitchen Dutch", or "Taal" (meaning language in Afrikaans) developed into a separate language by the 19th century, with much work done by the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners and other writers such as Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven. In a 1925 act of Parliament, Afrikaans replaced standard Dutch as one of the two official languages of the Union of South Africa. There was much objection to the attempt to legislate the creation of Afrikaans as a new language. Marthinus Steyn, a prominent jurist and politician, and others were vocal in their opposition. They perceived that legalization of Afrikaans as an official language would only serve to isolate the Afrikaners, as they would be the only people in the world to speak Afrikaans. Steyn, who died before 1925, had been educated in Holland and England and was a worldly cosmopolitan figure. Today, Afrikaans is recognised as one of the eleven official languages of the new South Africa, and is widely accepted as an appropriate means of communication for a large number of South Africans.
[edit]
Literature
Afrikaners have a long literary tradition, and have produced a number of notable novelists and poets, including Eugene Marais, Uys Krige, Elisabeth Eybers, Breyten Breytenbach, André Brink, and Etienne Leroux. See section on South African literature
[edit]
Arts
Music is probably the most popular art form among Afrikaners. While the traditional Boeremusiek (Boer Music) and Volkspele (literally, People Games) folk dancing enjoyed popularity in the past, most Afrikaners today favour a variety of international genres and light popular Afrikaans music. American country and western music has enjoyed great popularity and has a strong following among many South Africans. Some also enjoy a social dance event called a sokkie. The South African rock band, Seether, has a hidden track on their album, Karma and Effect, that is sung in the Afrikaans language. It is titled, Kom Saam Met My, which is translated as Come With Me. There is also an underground rock music movement and bands like the controversial Fokofpolisiekar have a large following. The television Channel MK (channel) also supports local Afrikaans music and mainly screen videos from the Afrikaans Rock genre.[40] Also see section on protest music(South African)
[edit]
Sport
Rugby, cricket, and golf are generally considered to be the most popular sports among Afrikaners. Rugby in particular is considered one of the central pillars of the Afrikaner community. The Springboks won the 1995 and 2007 Rugby World Cups.
"Boere-sport" also played a very big role in the Afrikaner history. It consisted of a variety of sports like tug of war, three-legged races, jukskei, skilpadloop (tortoise walk) and other games.
[edit]
Numismatics
The world's first ounce-denominated gold coin, the Krugerrand was struck at the South African Mint on the third of July 1967. The name Krugerrand was derived from Kruger (President Paul Kruger) and rand the monetary unit of South Africa. The Rand is associated with the area called Witwatersrand, "the ridge of white water" an important gold producing area.
In April 2007, the South African Mint coined a collectors R1 gold coin commemorating the Afrikaner people as part of its cultural series, depicting the Great Trek across the Drakensberg mountains.
[edit]
Institutions
[edit]
Cultural
The Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuurvereniging (ATKV) (Afrikaans Language and Culture Society) is responsible for promoting the Afrikaans language and culture.
Die Voortrekkers is a youth movement for Afrikaners in South Africa and Namibia with a membership of over 10 000 active members to promote cultural values, maintaining norms and standards as Christians, and being accountable members of public society. Visit their web page on http://www.voortrekkers.org.za
[edit]
Political
An estimated 82% of Afrikaners supported the Democratic Alliance, the official opposition party, in the 2009 general election.[41]
Smaller numbers are involved in nationalist or separatist political organizations. The Freedom Front Plus is an Afrikaner ethnic political party in the Republican tradition, which lobbies for minority rights to be granted to all of the South African ethnic minorities. The Freedom Front Plus is also leading the Volkstaat initiative and is closely associated with the small town of Orania.[42]
[edit]
See also South Africa portal
Afrikaner Calvinism
Afrikaner nationalism
Afrikaner cattle
Anglo-Africans
Afrikaner-Jews
Ethnic groups in Africa
Huguenots in South Africa
White South Africans
White people
White Africans
Boer
Cape Coloureds
Cape Dutch
Cape Malays
Culture of South Africa
List of notable Afrikaners
[edit]
References
^ [1]
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=WA&rop3=100093
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=100093&rog3=ZA
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=100093&rog3=AS
^ http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.ph...=BC&rop3=100093
^ [2]
^ South Africans in Patagonia
^ Geskiedenis Katolieke Afrikaners
^ a b J. A. Heese (1971). Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657-1867 (Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657-1867 ed.). Kaapstad: A. A. Balkema. OCLC 1821706.
^ Greeff, J.M. (2007-03-13). "Deconstructing Jaco: Genetic Heritage of an Afrikaner". Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
^ Stanford News Service. South African activist teacher gets education doctorate
^ Hermann Giliomee, The Afrikaners: Biography of a People, University of Virginia Press, 2003
^ Yolandi Groenewald, "Bang bang – you’re dead", Mail & Guardian Online
^ Professor Wallace Mills. White Settlers in South Africa to 1870.
^ Irving Hexham and Karla Poewe. Christianity in Central Southern Africa Prior to 1910.
^ Mordechai Tamarkin. Cecil Rhodes and the Cape Afrikaners.
^ http://samilitaryhistory.org/vol014lb.html
^ Battle of Blood River - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
^ Speech delivered by the Minister of Home Affairs (Chairman of the House of Traditional Leaders) at the inauguration of the Ncome/Blood River Monument - 16 December 1998
^ "Don’t cry for me Orania". South Africa: The Times. 2008-02-05. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
^ "Title Unknown". Archived from the original on 2009-10-24.
^ a b c "van Rensburg trek leader to Kenya". Archived from the original on 2009-10-24.
^ "GREAT BRITAIN: In Kenya Colony". Time. 1934-10-15. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
^ http://www.margaretthatcher.org/commenta...sp?docid=110862
^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/466228
^ Countrystudies Toward Democracy
^ [3]
^ Simon Wood meets the people who lost most when Mandela won in South Africa
^ South Africa - Poor Whites
^ "Cop: You whites must f*** **f". News24. 6 November 2008.
^ "Inmates sang to drown screams". News24. 22 October 2008.
^ "Over 1000 Boer Farmers In South Africa Have Been Murdered Since 1991". Genocide Watch. Archived from the original on 2005-12-30. Retrieved 2005-12-31.
^ White farmers being wiped out, The Times
^ Criminal Justice Monitor (2003-07-31). Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Farm Attacks. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
^ "Racially Motivated Crime".
^ Million whites leave SA- study
^ Flags of the World
^ UNPO list of member states
^ International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2001) Population project
^ http://beta.mnet.co.za/MK/
^ The Afrikaners: Twenty traumatic years PoliticsWeb. 1 March 2010
^ Afrikaner Independence (1): Interview With Freedom Front General-Secretary Col. Piet Uys Global Politician. 24 May 2005
South Africa Suspends Disposal Of State Mining Assets
Du Toit, Brian M. 1998. The Boers in East Africa: Ethnicity and Identity. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Gilliomee, Hermann. 1989. The Beginnings of Afrikaner Ethnic Consciousness, 1850–1915, in Leroy Vail (ed.) The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. London/ Berkeley: Currey University of California Press, 1989. [4]
Mackenzie, S.P. 1997. Revolutionary Armies in the Modern Era: A Revisionist Approach. Routledge.
Van der Watt, Liese. 1997. 'Savagery and civilisation': race as a signifier of difference in Afrikaner nationalist art, De Arte 55. [5]
[edit]
External links
The Historical Heritage of The Afrikaner Nation
South Africa - Poor Whites
South Africa: Poor whites are strangers in a new land
2001 Digital Census Atlas
Afrikaner Nationalism Captures The State.
The Afrikaners of South Africa.
(French) Afrique du Sud
(French) mSN Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31)
Boer soldiers
British Policies and Afrikaner Discontent
The genetic heritage of one Afrikaner family (Archived 2009-10-24)
Afrikaans Wiki
ATKV - Afrikaanse Taal- en Kultuurvereniging
Some Boer characteristics, by George Lacy (The North American Review / Volume 170, Issue 518, January 1900)
Arthur Conan Doyle's description of Afrikaners/ Boere.
Between Acknowledgement and Ignorance:How white South Africans have dealt with the apartheid past[show]
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Ethnic groups in South Africa
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White people in Africa
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Categories: Afrikaner people | Dutch diaspora | Ethnic groups in South Africa | French diaspora
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